INTRO to NEURO

Contralateral

Anatomical term for relating to the opposite side of the body; Opposite of ipsilateral (same side of the body)

Ipsilateral

Anatomical term for relating to the same side of the body; opposite of contralateral (opposite side of the body)

Posterior

Anatomical term for toward the back of the brain or toward the back side of the spinal cord; opposite of anterior (front side)

Lateral

Anatomical term for toward the edge or side of the brain; opposite of medial (toward the midline of the brain)

Anterior

Anatomical term for toward the front of the brain or toward the front surface of the spinal cord; opposite of posterior (back side)

Medial

Anatomical term for toward the midline of the brain when viewed from the midsagittal plane

Rostral

Anatomical term for towards the nose or front of the head in regard to the brain or upward toward the brainstem in regard to the spinal cord; Means beak in Latin 

Caudal

Anatomical term for towards the tail or away from the head end of the body

Dorsal

Anatomical term for towards top of head in regard to the brain or toward back (posterior) side in regard to the spinal cord

Ventral

Anatomical term for underside (belly) for the brain or toward the anterior (front) of the spinal cord

Systems Neuroscience

Investigates brain cells collections that work together to complete a common function

Cognitive Neuroscience

Investigates highest-level of human thinking (i.e. language, emotion, attention, and consciousness)

Behavioral Neuroscience

Investigates how brain systems work together to generate behavior (i.e. daily rhythms of wake and sleep)

Molecular Neuroscience

Investigates smallest units of cell-to-cell communication in the brain, the conductors guiding brain development, and the sentries controlling access to neurons.

Cellular Neuroscience

Investigates ways molecules interact to give neurons their special properties and different types of brain cells.

Sagittal Plane

Vertical anatomical plane that runs front → back and divides the body and brain into left and right sections; towards perpendicular to coronal (frontal) plane

Coronal Plane

Vertical anatomical plane that runs left → right and divides the body and brain into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections; perpendicular to the floor, parallel to body’s long axis

Horizontal Plane

Transverse or axial plane that divides the brain and body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions

…Similarities between the organization of the rodent and human brain

Symmetrical paired hemispheres, positioning of major divisions, and a strong correlation between structures and functions are all…

…Differences between the organization of the rodent and human brain

More folding—which = more brain matter in the human brain; smaller olfactory bulbs for humans because they are more important for rodents; Ram’s Horn pattern in the human brain (folds in itself); Human brain having multiple lobes are all…

…Similarities between the cerebral cortex of vertebrates and mammals

Parallel-running cortical neurons are arranged in layers; No neuron cell bodies in layer closer to the surface of the brain surface (layer #1); and one layer having cells with large dendrites that project up to layer one are all…

…Difference between the cerebral cortex of vertebrates and mammals

Mammals having a multi-layer neocortex, which increased the association cortex (not with sensorimotor or secondary sensory functions)

Central Sulcus

Separates the Frontal lobe and the Parietal lobe

Lateral Fissure

Separates the Temporal lobe, Frontal lobe, and the Parietal lobe.

Cytoarchitecture

Varying cell compositions of brain regions

Molecular Layer

Layer #1 of the Neocortex, contains no neuronal cell bodies, and has at least one layer extending pyramidal cells with large apical dendrites up to it (intra- and inter-region connections)

Apical Dendrites

…

External Granular Layer

Layer #2 of the Neocortex, contains small pyramidal and small stellate cells, receives inputs from Layer #4, and sends outputs to Layer # 5

External Pyramidal Layer

Layer #3 of the Neocortex, contains med-size pyramidal cells, receives inputs from Layer #4, and sends outputs to Layer #5

Internal Granular Layer

Layer #4 of the Neocortex, contains small stellate and pyramidal cells, receives sensory inputs, and varies substantially across the cortex

Internal Pyramidal Layer

Layer #5 of the Neocortex, contains large pyramidal cells with long apical dendrites, it is the primary output layer to other cortical areas and the corticospinal tract

Multiform Layer

Layer #6 of the Neocortex, contains multiple types of cells, and it is responsible for making reciprocal connections with the thalamus

Primary Sensory Cortex

Has a large layer #4 of the Neocortex (Internal Granular Layer)

Primary Motor Cortex

Has a large layer #5 of the Neocortex (Internal Pyramidal Layer), but very small layer #4 of the Neocortex (Internal Granular Layer)

Precentral Gyrus (bump)

Primary Motor Cortex

Postcentral Gyrus (bump)

Primary Sensory Cortex

Superior Temporal Gyrus (bump)

Primary Auditory Cortex

STRATEGY

Level #1 of the Motor Control Hierarchy: identifying the goal of movement as an achievement (association areas of cortex, and basal ganglia)

TACTICS

Level #2 of the Motor Control Hierarchy: thinking about the sequence of muscle contractions needed to accomplish STRATEGY goal (motor cortex, and cerebellum)

EXECUTION

Level #3 of the Motor Control Hierarchy: the completion of the TACTIC motor movement (brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord)

The Motor Homunculus

Homunculus = “Little Man”; Shows that the relative size of structure of a drawing indicates the amount of motor cortex dedicated to that structure.

…Contralateral

Control of voluntary movement in the motor cortex is

Decussation

Crossing the midline in the medulla to go to the other side

Horizontal Sound Localization

The auditory system’s ability to determine the azimuth (left–right position) of a sound source in the horizontal plane

Interaural Time Delay

One of two sources of information that contribute to horizontal sound localization. This means that sounds coming from one side of the ear will hit that side’s ear before the other ear. The # of spikes per response codes information on where the sound is coming from

Cingulate Gyrus

A Midsagittal Landmark that extends from just below the corpus callosum and an anterior portion of the cingulate all the way to the posterior portion of the cingulate

Perigenual/Subgenual Cingulate Gyrus

Right next to the genu of the corpus callosum and is involved in emotion processing and emotion control/regulation

Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Gyrus

Related to advanced cognitive controls (i.e. decision making, reward processing, controlling behavioral responses to stimuli)

Posterior Cingulate Gyrus

Involved in processes such as imagination and autobiographical memory

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of white matter tracks of axons that run between the two cerebral hemispheres, holds them together, and is related to interhemispheric communication of information

Fornix

White matter bundle that extends laterally to the hippocampus in each hemisphere and provides an output pathway for the hippocampus to the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Olfactory bulb

Associated with the sensation of smell

Optic Chiasm

Sits below the hypothalamus where optic nerves cross from the right side to the left side.

Calcarine Fissure

Primary Visual Cortex in the occipital lobe on both sides of the brain. Bisects the parietal occipital sulcus (grooves)

Amygdala

Sits beneath the overlying cortex (inside temporal lobe) and at the end of the hippocampus. Important for threat detection and emotion processing

Hippocampus

Sits beneath the overlying cortex (inside temporal lobe) and central to the formation of new memories

Thalamus

Sits at the center of the cerebrum.

Hypothalamus

“Hypo” = “Below.” Important for the autonomic nervous system (includes command of “fight or flight” mechanism) and motivational processes that are related in seeking out food or reproductive opportunities

Midbrain

Made up of the Tectum and Tegmentum. It is a conduit for information moving between the spinal cord and the cerebrum

Tectum

Latin for “Roof” (on top of the Tegmentum) includes the superior caliculus (receives inputs from the eyes and contributes to eye movements) and the inferior caliculus (serves as a relay station for auditory input from ear → thalamus).

Tectum to Detect ‘em

Tegmentum

Contributes primarily to voluntary movement. Includes the substantia nigra and the red nucleus. (TegMENTUM for MoMENTUM)

Pons

Transmits information between the cortex and the cerebellum, as well as between the cerebellum and the spinal cord. Projects to the opposite side of the cerebellum, which makes the cerebellum ipsilaterally organized for movement control

Medulla

Serves as a pathway for sending cortical axons (including the cortical spinal tract) and carries motor information down to the spinal cord and the cortical spinal tract decussates (crosses the midline to go to the other side of the spinal cord). Cochlear nucleus is in it (sensitive nuclei related to hearing). And it also contributes to touch, sensation, and taste (motor neurons help control the tongue)

Cerebellum

“Little Brain” critical for accurate movements, receives input from pons and spinal cord to combine info regarding intended movement and body position in space, and is ipsilaterally organized. Important for sleep, working memory, and learning.

Purkinje cells

The fundamental unit of cerebellar function, and are only output cells (inhibitory), receive input from parallel fibers from pontine nuclei and from climbing fibers

Insula

Inside and behind the temporal lobe when looking at the brain from a lateral perspective. Important for processing social pain and integration of somatosensory

Caudate nucleus

Apart of the Basal Ganglia and is involved in the motor control of posture, reward processing, and approach or attachment behaviors

Putamen

Apart of the Basal Ganglia, helps with reward and cognitive function, and implicated in addiction in the use of substances. Posterior portion is important for motor control

Globus Pallidus

Apart of the Basal Ganglia that important for motor function

Basal Ganglia

…

Ventral Lateral Nucleus

Makes motor system projections to the precentral gyrus

Ventral Posterior Nucleus

Projects to the primary sensory system regions on the postcentral gyrus

Substantia Nigra

Apart of the midbrain, important component of the motor system and degeneration is implicated in Parkison’s disease

Subthalamus

Strongly connected to the Globus palladus