AP Psychology Topic 5: Memory

Memory

The process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Memory retention methods

Techniques used to maintain and strengthen memory, such as rehearsal, recall, recognition, relearning

Recall

The ability to retrieve information from memory

Recognition

The ability to identify previously learned information when presented with it.

Relearning

The process of learning something again that was previously learned, often requiring less time to relearn.

Rehearsal

The repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory or to encode it into long-term memory.

Information-processing model

A theory that compares the human mind to a computer in terms of how it processes information.

Encode

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Store

The process of maintaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Connectionism

A theory that suggests memory is a network of interconnected nodes or units, with each unit representing an idea or concept.

Multi-store model

A model that describes memory as consisting of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Working memory

A system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks.

Central executive

The part of working memory that controls attention and coordinates information from different subsystems.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information in a simple, mechanical way to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of rehearsal that involves connecting new information to existing knowledge to improve encoding.

Phonological loop

A component of working memory that deals with verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Explicit (declarative) memory

Memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled and verbally expressed.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory involving facts, concepts, and general knowledge.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory involving personal experiences and specific events.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Memory that does not require conscious recall, including skills and habits.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that involves the knowledge of how to perform tasks or skills.

Sensory memory

The brief storage of sensory information, lasting only a few seconds.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a short period.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a brief moment.

Short-term memory

A temporary store of information that lasts for about 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

Automatic processing

The unconscious encoding of information, such as the details of a scene or environment.

Effortful processing strategies

Techniques, such as chunking, mnemonics, peg-word, that require conscious effort to encode information.

Chunking

A strategy of grouping information into larger, meaningful units to aid memory retention.

Mnemonics

Memory aids, often involving the use of vivid imagery or acronyms.

Peg-word

A mnemonic device that involves associating numbers with a rhyming word and then linking items to those words.

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating information with specific physical locations or "places."

Hierarchies

Organizing information into levels to improve memory retention.

Spacing effect

The tendency for information to be better remembered when study or rehearsal is spaced out over time.

Massed practice

Concentrated learning or rehearsal over a short period of time.

Distributed practice

Spreading learning or rehearsal over longer periods to enhance memory.

Testing effect

The enhanced ability to recall information after testing oneself on it, rather than just re-studying.

Self-reference effect

The tendency to better remember information that is personally relevant.

Levels of processing model

A theory that deeper processing (e.g., meaning-based) leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing.

Shallow processing

Encoding information based on its surface characteristics, such as appearance or sound.

Deep processing

Encoding information based on its meaning, leading to better retention.

Structural, phonemic, semantic

Types of processing based on the structure (visual), phonemic (sound), or meaning of the information.

Long-term memory

A relatively permanent and limitless store of information.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experience, memories organized in webs

Memory consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often perceived as highly accurate.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons, which can occur in certain areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

memories are strengthened with repetition, synapses strengthen between neurons due to lots of activity

CREB

A protein that plays a key role in the process of memory formation by influencing gene expression.

Retrieval cues

stimuli that causes you to remember a memory

Retrospective memory

Memory for past events and experiences.

Prospective memory

Memory for future intentions, such as remembering to complete a task.

Priming

unconsciously taking in stimuli which influences your response to other things

Context-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information more easily when in the same context or environment in which it was learned.

Encoding specificity principle

idea that memory is improved when in the same context as it was before for memory

State-dependent memory

Memory that is enhanced when a person is in the same emotional or physiological state as when the memory was formed.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood.

Serial position effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

Primary effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a sequence better than later ones.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember the most recent items in a sequence better than earlier ones.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Interleaving

The practice of alternating between different topics or skills during learning, which can improve long-term retention.

Forgetting curve

The decline in memory retention over time, with most forgetting occurring shortly after learning.

Highly superior autobiographical memory

A condition in which individuals have an extraordinary ability to recall personal life events in great detail.

Retrograde amnesia

A type of memory loss where individuals cannot recall memories from before a traumatic event or injury.

Anterograde amnesia

A type of memory loss where individuals are unable to form new long-term memories after a traumatic event or injury.

Alzheimer's Disease

A degenerative brain disorder that leads to memory loss, confusion, and other cognitive declines.

Displacement

The process by which new information replaces old information in short-term memory when there is limited capacity.

Retrieval failure

The inability to access stored information, often due to a lack of retrieval cues.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

A feeling that one knows something but cannot quite recall it.

Proactive interference

When old information interferes with the ability to learn or recall new information.

Retroactive interference

When new information interferes with the ability to recall old information.

Repression

A defense mechanism that involves the unconscious blocking of distressing memories or thoughts.

Constructive memory

The idea that memory is not a passive process but is actively constructed and influenced by various factors.

Reconsolidation

The process by which previously consolidated memories become flexible and subject to modification when recalled.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memory due to exposure to misleading or incorrect information after an event.

Imagination inflation

The phenomenon where imagining an event can lead to false memories of that event.

Source amnesia

The inability to remember the source of a learned piece of information, leading to confusion or errors in recall.

Deja vu

The feeling that a situation has been experienced before, despite it being a new event.