bio 208 lecture exam 3

what is skeletal cartilage surrounded by?

perichondrium.

what is the epiphyseal plate and what cartilage is it made of?

growth hormone; hyaline

what is perichondrium

fibrous-like membrane

what are the three types of skeletal cartilage?

The three types of skeletal cartilage are hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.

what is another name for the ends of long bones

articular cartilage

where is hyaline cartilage found

articulations (joints), nose, trachea, ribs, bronchi

where is elastic cartilage found

external ear, epiglottis

where is fibrocartilage found?

intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, menisci

what are the two types of cartilage growth?

appositional and interstitial growth

what is appositional growth?

outward expansion from production of cartilage on the outer surface. (snowballing; adding more to external face)

growth in width

what is interstitial growth

growth from within due to division of chondrocytes and secretion of matrix.

growth in length

cartilage can be what?

calcified

cartilage hardens but it is not…

bone

functions of skeletal system

○      1. Support

○      2. Protection

○      3. Anchorage

○      4. Mineral storage

○      5. Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

○      6. Triglyceride storage

○      7. Hormone production

what are the 2 divisions of the skeletal system

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axial and appendicular skeleton

what bones does the axial skeleton include

●      Vertebrae

●      Skull

●      Rib cage

●      Limbs

●      Girdles

what bones does the appendicular skeleton include

bones are what?

organs

bones have what?

different types of tissue

different types of bones:

long, short, flat, irregular bones

what is long bone

■      - longer than wide Ex: Femur

what is short bone

■      somewhat cube-shaped Ex: carpals, patellas

what is flat bone

Thin, flattened Ex: Sternum

■      weird shapes Ex: hip bones, vertebrae

what is irregular bone

what is the structural unit of compact bone

osteon

what are the parts of an osteon and definitions of each part?

●      Central canal/ haversian canal - Nerves and blood vessels

●      Concentric Lamella - Fill spaces; rings

●       Lacunae - House osteocytes

●      Canaliculi - Canals that arms of osteocytes sit in; perforating/ volkman canals

what do osteons do

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●      Connect blood and nerve supply to periosteum and medullary

what is Circumferential lamellae of compact bone

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●      Extend around entire circumference of bone

what is Interstitial lamellae of compact bone

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●       Fill in between osteons

whats the main part of spongy bone

■      Trabeculae

what is Trabeculae

●      Interspersed with red bone marrow

two parts of flat bone structure

dipole, coverings

what is the dipole of flat bone

●      Spongy bone sandwiched between compact bone

what is the PBJ of dipole

○      Bread: compact

○      Peanut butter: spongy

○      Jelly: red bone marrow

what are the coverings of flat bones

periosteum, endosteum, articulations

what is the periosteum layers and what does each layer contain?

○      Outer fibrous layer - Contains sharpey’s fibers that connect to bone

○      Inner osteogenic layer - Contain osteogenic cells

what is the endosteum and what does it contain

○      Also contains osteogenic cells

what are the articulations of coverings of flat bones

●      hyaline cartilage (found at sutures)

four structural parts of long bones and description of each? what does the medullary cavity contain

■      Epiphysis - Location: ends of the bone

■      Metaphysis - Location: between epiphysis and diaphysis

■      Diaphysis - Location: shaft of bone; cavity: medullary cavity; Covering: periosteum

■      Epiphyseal plate (growth plate) - Hyaline cartilage

medullary cavity -  yellow bone marrow; Covering: endosteum

the four cells of bones

○      Osteogenic/progenitor cells

○      Osteoblasts

○      Osteocytes

○      Osteoclasts 

what are Osteogenic/progenitor cells

■      Stem cells

description of osteoblasts

■      Bone builders   

○      Secrete: Osteoid - *Collagen and calcium binding proteins, Strong but not hard*

description of Osteocytes

■      Mature bone cells

■      Location: Lacunae

description of Osteoclasts

■      Bone breakers/chewers

■      Function: bone resorption

what are the organic components of bone

●      Cells

●      Osteoid

description of inorganic bone

●      Hydroxyapatites - Mineral salts, Calcium phosphate

●      Hard and resists compression

what is ossification

●      Bone remodeling; laying down new bones by osteoblasts

what is Endo__chon__dral Ossification

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●      Bone tissue replaces hyaline cartilage

●      Affects which type of bones? Long bones

steps of endochondral ossification

○      Bone collar forms around diaphysis (shaft) - Primary ossification center

○      Cartilage in diaphysis calcifies - Medullary cavity starts to form

○      Periosteal bud (blood supply); spongy bone forms

○      Secondary ossification center appears in the epiphyses - Medullary cavity is fully formed; Elongation of diaphysis

○      Epiphyses ossifies, leaving hyaline cartilage in the ends aka epiphyseal plate!

what is Intramembranous ossification

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●      Bone replaces fibrous CT tissue

●      Affects which types of bones? Cranial bones and clavicles

steps of Intramembranous ossification

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○      Ossification center develops with osteoblasts  in fibrous CT

○      Osteoblasts secrete osteoid calcifies and are trapped

○      Immature spongy bone; periosteum forms - Blood supply

○      Compact bone replaces immature bone; red marrow develops

what type of growth is Postnatal bone growth

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Growth in length of long bones- Interstitial growth

what are the zones of interstitial growth and description of each?

■      1. Proliferation zone: growth zone- mitosis, growing on the diaphysis side - Pushing the epiphysis away!       

■      2. Hypertrophic zone: older cells getting bigger; chondrocytes

■      3. Calcification zone: chondrocytes die; blood vessels invade; matrix calcifies

■      4. Ossification zone: osteoblasts create new bone

description of the Ossification zone

●      Epiphyseal line-  no more cartilage, just bone!

●      Epiphyseal plate- hyaline cartilage

●      Girls are done growing at 18

●      Boys are done growing at 21

Appositional growth =

growth in width

what is hormonal control

■      Negative feedback loop releases PTH when blood calcium is low

what does hormonal control also contribute to

to the calcium homeostasis:

why is hormonal control important?

●      Important because calcium is necessary for many body system including the Nervous System

what is wolf’s law of mechanical stress and an example?

●      Bones grow or remodel in response to the demands placed on it

●      Ex: Tennis player’s serving arm has thicker bone

4 major stages of bone repair and description of each=

1. Inflammatory Stage (When blood vessels are torn, blood is released around the injured site and begins to lead to inflammation). Hematoma!! (a bruise that is formed by a buildup of *a lot* of blood under the skin).
2. Callus is made of fibrocartilage (blue).  Blood vessels begin to reform as well.
3. Hard callus forms (yellow).
4. Remodeling of the bone (still has imperfections).

what is Osteomalacia

○      A portion of the bone that is softer than the surrounding bone. Occurs because of poor calcium absorption in the body.

what are rickets

○      Soft and weak bones that are found in children as a result of poor vitamin D intake.

what is Osteo*poro*sis

○      Body loses too much bone and it becomes weak; can fall in (looks porous).

risk factors of Osteo*poro*sis

\-       Age (older)

\-       Gender (females; older women)

\-       Size of body and structure of skeletal system

\-       Exercise and diet (lack of)

\-       Smoking

the three structural classifications of joints:

■      Synovial

■      Fibrous

■      Cartilaginous

what are the joint structural classifications determined by

binding material and whether or not there is a joint cavity

the three Functional Classifications of joints

■      Synarthroses (immovable)

■      Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)

■      Diarthroses (freely movable)

what are fibrous joints connected by

○      dense fibrous connective tissue

what are the three types of fibrous joints and description of each?

■      Sutures - Skull ; Functional classification: synarthroses

■      Syndesmosis - Functional classification: amphiarthrosis ; Connected by ligaments (like between fibula and tibia)

■      Gomphosis - Teeth; Functional classification: synarthroses

what is Cartilaginous connected by

○      cartilage

two types of Cartilaginous and description of each

■      Synchondroses (hyaline cartilage) - Functional classification: synarthrotic ; Epiphyseal plate ; Between manubrium and clavicle

■      Symphysis (fibrocartilage) - Functional classification: amphiarthrotic ; Pubic symphysis; Intervertebral discs

synovial characteristics

■      1. Joint cavity (articular)

■      2. Synovial fluid

■      3. Joint capsule (articular) - Outer fibrous layer; Inner synovial membrane- makes synovial fluid

■      4. Articular cartilage (hyaline)

■      5. Nerves and blood vessels

■      6. Reinforcing ligaments

what is bursae

●      Flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane contains synovial fluid

●      To reduce friction

what is tendon sheaths

●      Cylindrical structures that surround muscle tissue

●      Used to reduce friction and made up of synovial membrane to lubricate

what factors increase stability of synovial joints

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■      1. Shapes of articular surfaces

■      2. Number and positioning of ligaments

■      3. Muscle tone

types of synovial joints and description of each

description of TMJ (Temporomandibular joint)

■      Joint type: Modified hinge joint

■      bones that make it up: Condyle of mandible; Mandibular fossa

■. Articular disc - Extension of fibrous layer of articular capsule (meniscus of the jaw)

description of shoulder joint

■      Joint type: Ball and socket joint

■      bones that make it up: Humerus; scapula

■      Many stabilizing ligaments

■      Rotator cuff- group of tendons that stabilize the shoulder joint

description of elbow joint

■       Joint type:Hinge joint

■      bones that make it up: Humerus; Ulna (radius is connected)

■      Supporting tendons and ligaments - Ulnar collateral ligament; Attaches humerus and ulna; Most commonly torn ligament in elbow (tommy john’s)

description of hip joints

■      Joint type: Ball and socket Joint

■      bones that make it up: Femur; Acetabulum (coxal bone)

■      Acetabular labrum- rim of fibrocartilage surrounding socket

knee joint description

■      Joint type: Hinge joint

■      bones that make it up: Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Patella

■      3 different articulations: Femoropatellar joint, Lateral joint, Medial joint - Lateral and medial joint form tibiofemoral joint

■      Menisci (lateral and medial) - Fibrocartilage cushions space between bones; Absorb shock

■       collateral ligaments (extracapsular)

■      Cruciate ligaments - Determined by the attachment to the  tibia

ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) - Anteriorly attached to Tibia; Prevents tibia from moving too far forward

PCL (posterior cruciate ligament) - Posteriorly attached to tibia; Crosses anterior cruciate ligament; Prevents tibia from moving too far backward

■      Patellar ligaments - Attaches patella and tibia; Involved in the patellar reflex

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common joint injuries

○      Torn ligament

○      Dislocation (luxation)

○      Sprain ligament

what is Bursitis and tendonitis

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■       -itis refers to inflammation

■      Inflammation of bursa

■      Inflammation of tendon or tendon sheath

what is Osteoarthritis (OA)

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●      Arthritis between bones

●      Bones directly contact one another (wear and tear)

what is Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

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●      autoimmune disorder

●      Attacks the Synovial layer (can reduce synovial fluid in capsules- increases friction)

what is lime disease and an example

○      inflammatory disease

■      Ticks

●      Helpful prefixes that all refer to muscles

○      Sarco

○      Myo

○      mys

description of skeletal muscle

■      Found: attached to bones

■      Voluntary

■      Striated

description of cardiac muscle

■      Found:  only in heart

■      Involuntary

■      Intercalated discs

■      Striated

description of smooth muscle

■      Found: digestive and urinary tract

■      Involuntary

■      Non-striated

what is Excitability of muscle tissue

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■      Respond to stimulus

what is Contractility of muscle tissue

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■      Shorten forcibly when stimulated

what is Extensibility of muscle tissue

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■      Ability to extend or stretch

what is Elasticity of muscle tissue

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■      Cells are able to recoil

muscle functions

○      Produce movement

○      Maintain posture and body position

○      Stabilize joints

○      Generate heat

○      Support the body

what are skeletal muscles?

■      Each muscle is vascularized and innervated

what is Epimysium

●      - dense irregular CT that surrounds muscle (outermost)

what is Perimysium

●      covers fascicle (group of fibers) by a layer of dense irregular CT

what is Endomysium

●      wispy sheath CT that surrounds individual muscle fiber (innermost)

○      Microscopic anatomy of muscle

■      Epimysium

■      Surrounds the muscle

■      Perimysium

■      Fascicle

■      Endomysium

■      Individual muscle fibers (actual cells)

■      myofibril

■      Myofilament - Actin & myosin