IO REVIEW MIDTERMS

Organizational structure

refers to the arrangement of positions in an organization and the authority and responsibility relationships among them

Traditional organizations

have formally defined roles for their members, are very rule driven, and are stable and resistant to change

Nontraditional organizations

• sometimes referred to as “organic”

• are characterized by less-formalized work roles and procedures

• flexible and adaptable

• fewer employees

chain of command

the number of authority levels in a particular organization

• follows the lines of authority and status vertically through the organization

span of control

the number of workers who must report to a single supervisor

wide span of control

has many workers reporting to each supervisor

narrow span of control

has few subordinates reporting to each superior

tall organizational structure

has a long chain of command—many authority levels—and a narrow span of control

flat organizational structure

has a short chain of command but a wide span of control

• few levels separate top-level managers from bottom-level workers, possibly leading to greater interaction between the top and bottom of the organization

functional structure

an organizational structure that divides the organization into departments based on the functions or tasks they perform

• creates job specialists

divisional structure

an organizational structure that divides the organization according to types of products or customers

• allows companies to easily expand products or services merely by adding a new division

centralization

the degree to which decision-making power rests at the upper levels of the organizational hierarchy

decentralization

the process of taking the decision-making authority away from the top levels of the organization and distributing it to lower levels

bureaucracy

a traditional organizational structure typified by a well-defined authority hierarchy and strict rules governing work behavior

Max Weber

• developed the bureaucratic model

• formulated a theory of organizational structure that was based on formality and authority

• believed the bureaucracy established order in the work setting and increased productivity by reducing inefficiencies in organizational operations.

Specialization of labor

• The complex goals or outputs of the organization are broken down into separate jobs with simple, routine, and well-defined tasks.

• In this way, each person becomes a specialized expert at performing a certain task.

A well-defined authority hierarchy

• Bureaucracies are characterized by a pyramid-type arrangement in which each lower position is controlled and supervised by the next higher level.

• Every position is under the direct supervision of someone higher up, so that there is no confusion about who reports to whom

Formal rules and procedures

• In a bureaucracy there are strict rules and regulations to ensure unifor mity and to regulate work behavior.

• Because of these extensive rules and procedures, there should never be any doubt about what a particular worker is supposed to be doing.

• Everyone’s job is well defined, and procedures for coordinating activities with other workers should be clearly established.

Impersonality

behavior is based on logical rather than emotional thinking. This means that personal preferences and emotional factors do not have a place in any work-related decisions.

Employment decisions based on merit

Hiring and promotion decisions are based on who is best qualified for the job rather than on the personal preferences of those making the personnel decisions.

Emphasis on written records

• To ensure uniformity of action and fair and equitable treatment of employees, bureaucracies keep meticulous records of past decisions and actions.

• All behaviors occurring in the organization are recorded, which contributes to the image of bureaucrats as compulsive “paper-shufflers.”

line–staff organizational structure

a traditional organizational structure composed of one group of employees who achieve the goals of the organization (the line), and another group who support the line (staff)

line

employees in an organization who are engaged directly in tasks that accomplish its goals

staff

specialized employee positions designed to support the line

team organization

a nontraditional organizational structure consisting of a team of members organized around a particular project or product

• less emphasis on organizational status

project task force

a nontraditional organization of workers who are assembled temporarily to complete a specific job or project

matrix organization

an organizational design that blends functional and product structures

Joan Woodward

• proposed one of the earliest contingency models of org structure

• stated that for maximal performance, organizational structure needed to match the type of production technology

small-batch production

• required a span of control that was moderate in size, with about 20 to 30 workers reporting to a supervisor, and a short chain of command

mass production

• referred to as “large-batch” companies

• required a large span of control (40–50 workers per supervisor) and a fairly long chain of command, with several levels in the organizational hierarchy.

continuous-process manufacturing

• required a small span of control and a very long chain of command.

information technology

refers to all aspects of jobs, including the equipment and tools used, the decision making procedures followed, and the information and expertise needed.

Differentiation

the complexity of an organization’s structure that is based on the number of units, the orientations of manag ers, and the goals and interests of members

integration

the amount and quality of collaboration among the divisions of an organization

organizational culture

the shared values, beliefs, assumptions, and patterns of behavior within an organization

Individualism versus collectivism

Concerned with the extent to which individual interests and goals are emphasized versus a focus on the larger group, or collective.

Power distance

Deals with the extent to which members of the culture accept and expect that there are differences in the way that power is distributed unequally among members.

Masculinity versus femininity

Represents the extent to which members of the culture value traits and practices that are stereotypically “masculine” such as assertiveness and competitiveness, or stereotypically “feminine” traits such as caring for others and being modest in presentation of accomplishments.

Uncertainty avoidance

Concerns the extent to which members of the culture avoid or tolerate uncertainty and ambiguity.

Long-term versus short-term orientation

This dimension concerns whether members of the culture emphasize long-term orientations such as perseverance and working hard today for future payoffs, versus short-term fulfillment of immediate needs.

organizational development (OD)

the process of assisting organizations in preparing for and managing change

first phase of OD

usually a diagnosis of the organization to identify significant problems.

second phase of OD

appropriate interventions are chosen to try to deal with the problems

third phase of OD

the implementation of the interventions, or OD techniques

last phase of OD

the results of the interventions are evaluated

change agent

name for an OD practitioner, referring to the person’s role as a catalyst who helps organizations through the process of change

action research

an OD methodological model that applies social science research methods to collecting relevant organizational data that are used for solving organizational problems

survey feedback

an OD technique whereby the consultant works with the organization to develop and administer a survey instrument to collect data that are fed back to organizational members and used as the starting point for change

• usually designed to assess employee attitudes about important work-related issues

t-groups (sensitivity training)

an OD technique that uses unstructured group interaction to assist workers in achieving insight into their own motivations and behavior pat terns in dealing with other organizational members

• “training groups”

• consists of small groups of workers who meet in a nonwork setting for an unstructured discussion of their attitudes and beliefs concerning their work, the work environment, and their interactions with supervisors and coworkers

team building

an OD intervention in which groups of workers meet to discuss ways to improve their performance by identifying strengths and weaknesses in their interaction with one another

Process consultation

an OD technique in which a consultant helps a client organization to “perceive, understand, and act upon process events which occur in the client’s environment”

management by objectives (MBO)

a goal-setting OD technique in which supervisors and subordinates jointly set performance goals; at the end of the goal period, their attainment is evaluated and new goals are set

quality circles

small groups of volunteer employees from the same work area who meet regularly to solve work-related problems

personnel psychology

the specialty area of I/O psychology focus ing on an organization’s human resources

job analysis

the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the qualities needed to perform it

• performance criteria, which are the means for appraising worker success in performing a job.

job description

a detailed description of job tasks, procedures, and responsibilities; the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service

job specification

provides information about the human characteristics required to perform the job, such as physical and personal traits, work experience, and education.

job evaluation

an assessment of the relative value of a job to determine appropriate compensation

Observations

• the analyst usually observes the job incumbent at work for a period of time.

• the observer takes detailed notes on the exact tasks and duties performed.

Participation

a job analyst may want to actually perform a particular job or job operation to get a firsthand understanding of how the job is performed.

existing data

Most large, established organizations usually have some information or records that can be used in the job analysis, such as a previous job analysis for the position or an analysis of a related job

interviews

They can be open-ended (“Tell me all about what you do on the job”), or they can involve structured or standardized questions.

surveys

usually involve the administration of a pencil and-paper questionnaire that the respondent completes and returns to the job analyst.

subject matter expert (SME)

an individual who has detailed knowledge about a particular job

Job diaries

• have job incumbents record their daily activities in a diary.

• it provides a detailed, hour-by-hour, day-by-day account of the worker’s job

job element method

a job analysis method that analyzes jobs in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform the jobs

critical incidents technique (CIT)

records the specific worker behaviors that have led to particularly successful or unsuccessful job performance

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

a job analysis technique that uses a structured questionnaire to analyze jobs according to 187 job statements, grouped into six categories

Information input

Where and how the worker obtains the information needed to perform the job

Mental processes

The kinds of thinking, reasoning, and decision making required to perform the job

Work output

The tasks the worker must perform and the tools or machines needed.

Relationships with other persons

The kinds of relationships and contacts with others required to do the job.

Job context

The physical and/or social contexts in which the work is performed.

Other job characteristics

Other relevant activities, conditions, or characteristics necessary to do the job.

Functional job analysis (FJA)

a structured job analysis technique that examines the sequence of tasks in a job and the processes by which they are completed

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)

a reference guide that classifies and describes over 40,000 jobs

People

refers to the amount of contact with others that a job requires.

Things

refers to the worker’s interaction with inanimate objects such as tools, machines, equipment, and tangible work products.

compensable factors

the job elements that are used to determine appropriate compensation for a job

comparable worth

the notion that jobs that require equivalent KSAOs should be compensated equally

exceptioning

the practice of ignoring pay discrepancies between particular jobs possessing equivalent duties and responsibilities

glass ceiling

limitations placed on women and minorities preventing them from advancing into top-level positions in organizations

lowballing

this practice occurs when a company is unable to raise the wages of lower paid employees who perform the same functions as higher paid employees