2.1-2.3 Chapter 2 AP Psych

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information to make sense of the environment.

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing that begins with sensory input and builds up to perception; data-driven.

Bottom-Up Example 1

Identifying an unfamiliar object by examining its features.

Bottom-Up Example 2

Recognizing a new song by noticing individual notes and rhythms.

Bottom-Up Example 3

Feeling sand and realizing you're on a beach from texture and temperature.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by expectations, context, and prior knowledge.

Top-Down Example 1

Reading an incomplete or poorly printed word using context.

Top-Down Example 2

Interpreting a shadow in a dark room as a person.

Top-Down Example 3

Understanding a sentence with missing letters.

Top-Down Example 4

Recognizing a familiar song from only a few notes.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Assimilation Example

A child calling a zebra a "horse."

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating a new schema to fit new information.

Accommodation Example

Creating a new “zebra” category after learning about stripes.

Perceptual Set

An expectation that influences perception.

Perceptual Set Example

Expecting footsteps in a dark alley and interpreting sounds that way.

Cultural Influence on Perception

Context and culture shape how sensory information is interpreted.

Gestalt: Closure

Filling in gaps to perceive a complete image.

Closure Example

Seeing a dotted circle as whole.

Gestalt: Figure-Ground

Distinguishing an object from its background.

Figure-Ground Example

Seeing a person in a busy crowd.

Gestalt: Proximity

Grouping objects that are near each other.

Proximity Example

Seeing nearby dots as one cluster.

Gestalt: Similarity

Grouping similar-looking items together.

Similarity Example

Group players by uniform.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Selective Attention Example

Listening to a lecture and ignoring noise.

Cocktail Party Effect

Focusing on one conversation in a noisy room.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice visible objects because attention is elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in environment.

Retinal Disparity

Differences between the two eyes help depth perception.

Convergence

Eyes turning inward to focus on close objects.

Relative Clarity

Clearer objects appear closer.

Relative Size

Larger objects appear closer.

Texture Gradient

Detailed textures appear closer.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance.

Interposition

Closer objects block farther objects.

Shape Constancy

Recognizing an object's shape despite angle changes.

Size Constancy

Perceiving an object as same size despite distance.

Relative Motion

Closer objects appear to move faster as we move.

Stroboscopic Effect

Illusion of movement created by rapid series of images.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used for quick decision-making.

Representative Heuristic

Judging by how well something matches a prototype.

Representative Example

Assuming a quiet person is a librarian.

Availability Heuristic

Judging based on how easily something comes to mind.

Availability Example

Fearing flying after seeing a plane crash on the news.

Mental Set

Using the same old strategy even when it doesn't work.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Priming Example

Seeing “nurse” primes “doctor.”

Framing

How information is presented affects decisions.

Framing Example

Choosing a 90% survival rate over 10% mortality.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that past random events influence future ones.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because you've already invested in it.

Executive Functions

Processes like planning, organizing, and self-control.

Creativity

Producing novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing to one correct solution.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and events requiring conscious recall.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and automatic processes.

Procedural Memory

Memory for how to perform skills.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future.

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of neural pathways that supports learning and memory.

Central Executive

Directs attention and coordinates working memory.

Phonological Loop

Processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Processes visual and spatial information.

Sensory Memory

Brief immediate recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage for information currently in use.

STM Capacity

Holds 7±2 items.

STM Duration

Lasts about 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.

STM Encoding

Mainly encoded acoustically (by sound).

STM Function

Acts as a mental workspace for information.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage of information.

LTM Capacity

Unlimited capacity.

LTM Duration

Can last a lifetime.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of information.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and effort.

Level of Processing: Structural

Shallow processing based on appearance.

Level of Processing: Phonemic

Moderate processing based on sound.

Level of Processing: Semantic

Deep processing based on meaning.