Ancient Civilizations Overview – Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece & Rome

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Vocabulary flashcards covering major rulers, events, gods, concepts, and cultural achievements of Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations.

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112 Terms

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Sumerians

The people who around 4000 BCE created the first Mesopotamian civilization, inventing the wheel and cuneiform script.

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Cuneiform

Wedge-shaped writing system introduced by the Sumerians circa 3000 BCE.

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Sexagesimal System

Mesopotamian base-60 mathematical system, source of the 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle.

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Ziggurat

Mesopotamian terraced temple resembling a step pyramid, used for worship.

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Sargon of Akkad

Semitic ruler who conquered Sumer c. 2331 BCE and founded the Akkadian Empire.

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Akkadian Empire

First united Mesopotamian empire, established by Sargon with capital at Akkad.

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Old Babylonian Kingdom

Mesopotamian state founded c. 1900 BCE; reached height under Hammurabi.

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Hammurabi

Babylonian king (r. 1792–1750 BCE) famous for compiling the Code of Hammurabi.

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Code of Hammurabi

One of the earliest written law codes, inscribed on a stone stele, promoting “eye for an eye” justice.

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Marduk

Chief god of Babylon, elevated during Hammurabi’s reign.

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Assyria

Militaristic Mesopotamian empire founded c. 1350 BCE, renowned for iron weapons and brutality.

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Tiglath-Pileser I

Early Assyrian king credited with expanding Assyrian power (c. 1114–1076 BCE).

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Sargon II

Assyrian king who conquered Israel in 722 BCE and took inhabitants captive.

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Library of Ashurbanipal

Oldest known organized library, built at Nineveh by Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

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Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire

Babylonian revival state (625–539 BCE) founded by Nabopolassar.

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Nebuchadnezzar II

Greatest Chaldean king (605–562 BCE); built Hanging Gardens and destroyed Solomon’s Temple.

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Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Legendary terraced gardens allegedly built by Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife.

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Cyrus the Great

Persian ruler who captured Babylon in 538 BCE and allowed Jews to return to Palestine.

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Anu

Mesopotamian sky-god and ancestor of the deities.

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Enlil

Mesopotamian god of the earth and storms, wielding supreme authority.

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Enki

God of wisdom who executes Enlil’s plans; also known as Ea.

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Ea

Alternate name for Enki, Mesopotamian god of freshwater and creation.

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Shamash

Mesopotamian sun-god associated with justice.

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Sin

Mesopotamian moon-god.

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Ishtar

Goddess of love and war in Mesopotamia (Akkadian form of Inanna).

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Tammuz

Mesopotamian vegetation god whose death and rebirth symbolize crop cycles.

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Menes

King credited with unifying Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BCE.

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Old Kingdom (Egypt)

Egyptian era (c. 2660–2180 BCE) noted for pyramid construction.

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Pyramid of Khufu

Largest pyramid at Giza, built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops).

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Great Sphinx

Colossal limestone statue with human head and lion’s body guarding Giza.

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Hyksos

Asiatic people who invaded and ruled Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1640–1570 BCE).

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Ahmose I

Pharaoh who expelled the Hyksos and began the New Kingdom (1558–1533 BCE).

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Thutmose III

Expansionist New Kingdom pharaoh (1490–1436 BCE) who conquered Syria and Babylon.

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Akhenaten

Pharaoh (r. 1367–1350 BCE) who promoted monotheistic worship of Aten (Amun-Ra).

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Egyptian Monotheism

Brief period during Akhenaten’s reign when Aten was proclaimed the sole god.

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Ramses II

Long-reigning pharaoh (1290–1224 BCE) who enslaved Israelites and built monumental temples.

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Osiris

Egyptian god of fertility, afterlife, and judge of the dead.

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Isis

Egyptian goddess of motherhood, wife of Osiris.

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Amun-Ra

Composite sun-god worshiped as supreme deity in New Kingdom Egypt.

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Anubis

Jackal-headed Egyptian god of mummification and deaths.

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Mummification

Egyptian embalming technique to preserve bodies for the afterlife.

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Hieroglyphics

Egyptian pictographic writing system used on monuments and papyri.

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Obelisk

Tall, four-sided stone pillar tapering to a point, dedicated to Amun-Ra.

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Minoan Civilization

Bronze Age culture on Crete (2200–1400 BCE) named after King Minos.

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Mycenaean Civilization

Greek mainland culture (c. 1550–1000 BCE) known for fortress palaces and warfare.

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Trojan War

Legendary conflict between Mycenaeans and Troy, dated c. 1230 BCE in Homer’s Iliad.

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Odysseus

Greek hero of the Trojan War whose journey home is told in Homer’s Odyssey.

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Greek Dark Age

Period (1000–750 BCE) of reduced literacy and cultural decline after Mycenae.

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Polis

Independent Greek city-state, the basic political unit of classical Greece.

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Sparta

Militaristic Greek polis characterized by oligarchic rule and strict discipline.

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Oligarchy

Government in which power is held by a small elite, exemplified by Sparta.

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Athens

Greek polis famous for developing direct democracy and cultural achievements.

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Democracy

Rule by the people; pioneered in Athens under leaders like Pericles.

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Persian Wars

Series of conflicts (490–479 BCE) in which Greek city-states fought the Achaemenid Empire.

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Battle of Marathon

490 BCE clash where Athenian hoplites defeated Darius I’s Persians.

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Battle of Salamis

479 BCE naval battle where Athens routed Xerxes’ Persian fleet.

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Pericles

Athenian statesman (r. 461–429 BCE) who led during the city’s Golden Age.

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Peloponnesian War

Civil war (431–404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta that ended Athenian dominance.

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Alexander the Great

Macedonian king (r. 336–323 BCE) who conquered Persia and spread Hellenistic culture.

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Hellenism

Blending of Greek, Egyptian, Persian and Indian cultures after Alexander’s conquests.

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Homer

Epic poet credited with the Iliad and the Odyssey.

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Herodotus

‘Father of History’; wrote Histories on Greco-Persian Wars.

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Thucydides

Greek historian of the Peloponnesian War.

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Polybius

Hellenistic historian whose ‘Histories’ analyzed Roman constitution.

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Hippocrates

Greek ‘Father of Medicine’ who set ethical standards (Hippocratic Oath).

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Thales

Early Greek mathematician and philosopher, pioneered geometry.

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Democritus

Philosopher who proposed atomic theory of matter.

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Archimedes

Syracusan mathematician, physicist, inventor of the screw pump and buoyancy law.

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Pythagoras

Greek mathematician known for the Pythagorean theorem.

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Socrates

Classical Athenian philosopher who used dialectic questioning.

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Plato

Socrates’ pupil; founded the Academy and wrote philosophical dialogues.

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Aristotle

Plato’s student, tutor of Alexander, systematized logic and science.

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Zeus

King of Greek gods, lord of the sky and thunder.

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Hera

Greek goddess of marriage, wife of Zeus.

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Poseidon

Greek god ruling seas, earthquakes, and horses.

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Hades

Greek god of the underworld and the dead.

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Athena

Greek goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare, patron of Athens.

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Ares

Greek god of war symbolizing bloodshed.

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Aphrodite

Greek goddess of love and beauty.

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Hermes

Greek messenger god, patron of travelers and merchants.

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Apollo

Greek god of sun, music, prophecy and healing.

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Romulus

Legendary founder of Rome, twin of Remus, dated 753 BCE.

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Roman Kingdom

Earliest period of Rome (753–510 BCE) ruled by kings.

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Roman Republic

Roman state (510–31 BCE) with elected consuls and Senate.

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Consul

One of two annually elected chief magistrates of the Roman Republic.

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Senate (Rome)

Council of elder aristocrats guiding Roman policy.

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Punic Wars

Three wars (264–146 BCE) between Rome and Carthage for Mediterranean dominance.

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Hannibal

Carthaginian general who crossed Alps to fight Rome in Second Punic War.

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First Triumvirate

Political alliance (60 BCE) of Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar.

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Julius Caesar

Roman general who conquered Gaul, became dictator, and was assassinated in 44 BCE.

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Veni, Vidi, Vici

Caesar’s phrase “I came, I saw, I conquered,” celebrating swift victories.

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Cleopatra VII

Last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt; allied romantically with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

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Augustus (Octavian)

First Roman emperor (r. 27 BCE–14 CE) who ushered in Pax Romana.

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Pax Romana

200-year period of relative peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire.

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Nero

Roman emperor (54–68 CE) notorious for persecuting Christians and Great Fire legend.

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Diaspora

Dispersal of Jews after Roman destruction of Jerusalem (70 CE).

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Hadrian’s Wall

Defensive fortification in Britain built under Emperor Hadrian (122 CE).

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Diocletian

Emperor (r. 284–305) who split the empire into East and West and persecuted Christians.

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Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire centred on Constantinople, lasting 330–1453 CE.

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Constantine the Great

Emperor who legalized Christianity (Edict of Milan, 313 CE) and founded Constantinople.