General Science Reviewer Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering concepts of Physics and Chemistry based on the General Science course syllabus and reviewers.

Physics

The branch of science that studies matter, energy, motion, and forces, and explains how these interact to govern natural phenomena and technological systems.

Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space.

Energy

The capacity to do work or cause change.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

Force ($F$)

A push or pull that can change the motion or shape of an object, calculated as $F = m \times a$.

Motion

The change in position of an object over time.

Inertia

The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion.

Work ($W$)

The transfer of energy that occurs when a force causes displacement in the direction of the force, calculated using $W = F \times d \times \cos(\theta)$.

Power ($P$)

The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred, calculated as $P = \frac{W}{t}$.

Efficiency ($\eta$)

The ability of a system to convert input energy into useful output, expressed as $\text{Efficiency} = \left(\frac{\text{Useful Output}}{\text{Input}}\right) \times 100\%$. No system is 100% efficient due to energy loss.

Friction

A force that opposes motion between surfaces in contact, producing heat and reducing efficiency.

Gravity ($g$)

The force that attracts objects toward Earth, with an approximate acceleration value of $g \approx 9.8\,m/s^2$.

Translational Motion

Motion in which all parts of an object move the same distance in the same direction over time without rotating.

Rotational Motion

Motion in which an object rotates around a fixed axis, where each point moves in a circular path.

Displacement ($d$)

A vector quantity representing the change in position of an object in a given direction, given by $d = \text{final position} - \text{initial position}$.

Velocity ($v$)

The rate of change of displacement with respect to time, calculated as $v = \frac{d}{t}$.

Acceleration ($a$)

The rate at which velocity changes over time, calculated as $a = \frac{v_f - v_i}{t}$.

Angular Displacement ($\theta$)

The angle through which an object rotates about an axis, measured in degrees or radians.

Angular Velocity ($\omega$)

The rate of change of angular displacement, calculated as $\omega = \frac{\theta}{t}$.

Tangential Velocity ($v$)

The linear speed of a point on a rotating object, calculated as $v = r \times \omega$.

Centripetal Acceleration ($a_c$)

Acceleration directed toward the center of a circular path that keeps an object moving in a circle, calculated as $a_c = \frac{v^2}{r}$.

Ergonomic Design

Designing tools and systems that match human motion to reduce strain and improve efficiency.

Machine

A device that makes work easier by changing the magnitude or direction of a force, or both.

Simple Machine

A basic mechanical device that alters force to perform work more efficiently, such as a lever, pulley, or inclined plane.

Compound Machine

A system that combines two or more simple machines working together.

Mechanical Advantage ($MA$)

The ratio of output force to input force, expressed as $MA = \frac{\text{Output Force}}{\text{Input Force}}$.

Velocity Ratio ($VR$)

The ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load, calculated as $VR = \frac{\text{Distance moved by effort}}{\text{Distance moved by load}}$.

Torque ($\tau$)

The turning effect of a force applied at a distance from an axis, calculated as $\tau = r \times F \times \sin(\theta)$.

Lever

A rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum.

Center of Mass

The point where the mass of an object is concentrated, which determines its stability and balance.

Fluid

A substance that can flow and take the shape of its container, encompassing both liquids and gases.

Density ($\rho$)

The mass per unit volume of a substance, calculated as $\rho = \frac{m}{V}$.

Pressure ($P$)

The force exerted per unit area, calculated as $P = \frac{F}{A}$.

Fluid Pressure

Pressure exerted by a fluid at rest, which increases with depth and acts equally in all directions, calculated as $P = \rho gh$.

Pascal's Principle

The principle stating that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions, expressed as $\frac{F_1}{A_1} = \frac{F_2}{A_2}$.

Archimedes' Principle

The principle stating that an object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced, where $F_b = \rho \times g \times V$.

Viscosity

The resistance of a fluid to flow.

Surface Tension

The cohesive force at the surface of a liquid that causes the surface to behave like a stretched membrane.

Electric Charge ($Q$)

A fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric field, measured in Coulombs ($C$).

Electric Current ($I$)

The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor, calculated as $I = \frac{Q}{t}$ and measured in Amperes ($A$).

Voltage ($V$)

The potential difference that pushes electric charges through a circuit, measured in Volts ($V$).

Resistance ($R$)

The opposition to the flow of electric current, measured in Ohms ($\Omega$).

Ohm's Law

The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit, defined by $V = I \times R$.

Electric Power ($P$)

The rate at which electrical energy is used or converted, calculated as $P = V \times I$ and measured in Watts ($W$).

Series Circuit

A circuit where components are connected in a single path, meaning the same current flows through all components.

Parallel Circuit

A circuit where components are connected across the same voltage source, keeping the voltage equal across components.

Overloading

An electrical hazard that occurs when too many devices draw current from one circuit, causing overheating.

Short Circuit

A low-resistance path that allows excessive current flow, causing rapid overheating and circuit damage.

Speed of Light ($c$)

The constant speed at which light travels in a vacuum, approximately $c = 3.0 \times 10^8\,m/s$.

Reflection

The bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface, following the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Refraction

The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in speed.

Index of Refraction ($n$)

A measure of how much light slows down in a medium, given by $n = \frac{c}{v}$.

Dispersion

The separation of light into its component colors due to different wavelengths bending at different angles.

Sound

A mechanical wave produced by vibrating objects and transmitted through a medium; it cannot travel in a vacuum.

Longitudinal Wave

A type of wave where particle motion is parallel to the wave direction, forming compressions and rarefactions.

Frequency ($f$)

The number of vibrations or cycles per second, measured in Hertz ($Hz$), which determines pitch in sound.

Echo

The reflection of sound waves from surfaces after traveling over a sufficient distance.

Resonance

The amplification of sound that occurs when an object vibrates at its natural frequency.

Louis Pasteur

A scientist known as the "Father of Microbiology" who combined chemistry and biology to contribute the Germ Theory of Disease, pasteurization, and vaccination.

Germ Theory of Disease

The scientific principle stating that microorganisms (germs) cause infectious diseases.

Pasteurization

The process of heating liquids to kill harmful microorganisms without destroying nutrients to prevent disease and extend shelf life.

Fermentation

An anaerobic chemical process where microorganisms convert sugars into alcohol, acids, or gases.

Active Ingredient

The component in a product directly responsible for performing its intended main effect.

Surfactant

A compound with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail that lowers surface tension, allowing water to spread and penetrate surfaces.

Saponification

The chemical reaction between fats and oils with an alkali to produce soap.

pH (Potential of Hydrogen)

A measure of acidity or alkalinity on a scale from $0$ to $14$, where $7$ is neutral.