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Faiths that emerged from the Enlightenment
Deism: Deists likened God to a clockmaker who set the universe in motion without further interference.
Pantheism: Pantheists believed that God and nature were identical, viewing God through the lens of natural law and reason.
Example of how women were suppressed during Enlightenment
Although some Parisian women hosted salons where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, most male Enlightenment figures did not support feminist views. The Encyclopédie, a key repository of Enlightenment thought, included very few contributions from women.
China’s engagement with Western Science
Chinese interest was primarily in practical applications of European science, such as eclipse prediction, calendar reform, and cartography.
Japan’s engagement with Western Science
In the 1720s, the Japanese allowed the Dutch importation of books → impressed by Western anatomical knowledge demonstrated through dissections by Dutch physicians
Ottoman reaction to Western Science
While Ottoman scholars were aware of European scientific achievements by the mid-seventeenth century, they translated few major scientific works, focusing instead on the practical benefits of such knowledge for tasks like mapmaking and calendar reform.
How did nineteenth-century developments in the sciences challenge Enlightenment ideas and principles?
Charles Darwin's ideas suggested that species (humans too) evolved through natural selection → challenged theview of humans as inherently rational and unique
Karl Marx proposed that human history was driven by material economic forces and conflict rather than ideals and rational decision-making.
What ideas of Enlightenment contributed to the Atlantic Revolutions?
Popular Sovereignty: the authority’s governance should derive from the people rather than from divine right
Equality and Liberty: encouraged the revolutionary rhetoric and actions seen in the American and French Declarations
Secular governance: diminished religious authority; evident in revolutionary contracts
American Revolution: causes
Not sparked by internal conflicts but by Britain's attempts in the 1760s to increase control and tax revenues from the colonies due to financial strains from wars with France.
American Revolution: features
The American Revolution was revolutionary because it only accelerated/reaffirmed democratic trends that were already present in the colonies. It was not revolutionary in leading to a broad transformation of society like the French and Haitian.
American Revolution: effects
The U.S. Constitution implemented Enlightenment ideals, such as the Bill of Rights, checks and balances, and federalism.
influenced political movements and revolutions across the century that followed.
guided the development of democratic governance and legal structures around the world.
Connect the American Revolution to broader aspects of global politics.
It justified the Enlightenment ideals of democracy, individual rights, and social contract, influencing political thought in France and the rest of Europe and other areas in the Americas.
Compare the outcomes of the American Revolution with those of later Latin American revolutions.
The United States achieved relative political stability and a lasting democratic system, unlike many Latin American countries which experienced frequent revolutions and were often dominated by caudillos or military rule.
U.S. built a diverse economy, Latin American nations were banana republics.
Tensions in France before revolution
The nobility resisted new taxes, while the educated middle class (doctors, lawyers, merchants) resented the privileges of the aristocracy. Urban workers faced declining incomes and rising bread prices, and peasants dealt with oppressive dues, taxes, church obligations, and forced labor on public roads.
French Revolution: terrors
Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, the Terror resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands via the guillotine, including perceived enemies of the revolution.
Compare French Revolution with Russian and Chinese
The French Revolution was characterized by violence and radicalism, especially in its first five years.
For instance, both the French and Russian revolutionaries had terrors → sought to remove enemies of state/ideology
The French sought to destroy remnants of monarchy and sometimes Christianity, similar to the Cultural Revolution
French Revolution and Women
Over sixty women’s clubs formed, advocating for rights and participation in the revolutionary process. Prominent figures like Olympe de Gouges used the language of natural rights to argue for gender equality.
Cultural and Social Influence of the French Revolution
Unlike the American Revolution, which inspired others through its democratic example and constitution, the French Revolution's influence expanded through conquest under Napoleon Bonaparte.
Haitian Revolution: Events
The slaves saw the French Revolution's promise as an opportunity for personal freedom, leading to a significant revolt in 1791. This revolt involved the burning of 1,000 plantations
Toussaint Louverture managed to resist internal opposition and foreign intervention, defeating an invading Napoleon.
Haitian Revolution: economic changes
The plantation system was dismantled. The revolution led to the redistribution of land among former slaves and free blacks, transitioning Haiti to a nation of small-scale farmers primarily focused on subsistence agriculture
led to the expansion of slavery in other regions like Cuba, where sugar production increased as Haiti’s declined
Latin American Revolutions: Basic Characteristics
Creoles (native-born white elites) in the Spanish Colonies became familiar with the Enlightenment ideas of popular sovereignty, republican government, and personal liberty.
Frustrated with authoritarian Spanish taxation and tariffs
Movement had a lack of unity due to existing racial, wealth, colonial regional boundaries.
Event that allowed the Latin American Revolution to happen
1808 Iberian invasion by Napoleon deposed Spanish king Ferdinand VII, exiled the Portuguese royal family to Brazil.
Hidalgo-Morelos rebellion (1810-11)
Socially radical peasant rebellion in Mexico (1810-11) led by the priests Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos for independence.
Creole landowners from within crushed the rebellion.
Different than North America, where violence was against the British solely.
Role of Nativism in the Latin American Revolutions.
Leaders like Simon Bolivar needed public support to prevail against the Spanish. Thus Nativism rallied the various people born in the Americas - creoles, indigenous, mixed-race, free black - as Americanos, against the Peninsulares.
This was difficult, as many creoles and mestizos identified with the Spanish enemy.
Actual independence did not change the casta structure from colonialism.
Progress and Challenges in Women's Rights by 1900
By the turn of the 20th century, advancements for women in upper and middle classes included access to universities in limited numbers and increasing literacy rates.
The field of teaching and nursing, professionalized by figures like Florence Nightingale in Britain, attracted many women → social work emerged as a new female-dominated profession.
How the Industrial Revolution affected the British Aristocracy
Despite maintaining material wealth, the aristocracy's dominance decreased primarily due to the rise of industrial wealth.
Landownership was no longer the basis for wealth, as industrial + commercial leaders began to dominate major political parties.
How the Industrial Revolution affected the Middle Classes
Who the Industrial Rev. benefited most were the upper middle class: wealthy industrialists, mine owners, bankers, and merchants.
Distinct culture shaped by liberalism: private property, free trade, limited social reform.
The Reform Bill of 1832, driven by middle-class activism, expanded voting rights to many middle-class men.
The Cult of Domesticity
Middle-class women became idealized as homemakers; they were tasked with child-rearing, charitable activities, “refined” activities like music.
Placed women firmly within the private sphere of the home, but they were detached from the productive labor of a servant. Having a servant was a status symbol.
How were the lives of the laboring masses negatively impacted by the Industrial Revolution?
The rapid urbanization that accompanied industrialization led to overcrowded living environments. Cities lacked adequate sanitation, leading to frequent epidemics
The repetitive tasks in factories were different from the more autonomous artisanal or agricultural work of previous laborers.
Friendly Societies
Laborer self-help groups were funded by member dues and provided benefits like sickness insurance, funeral costs, and social engagement opportunities in the otherwise harsh industrial environment.
Luddites
Skilled artisans displaced by industrial machines sometimes resorted to violent actions, such as destroying machinery and setting mills on fire, to protest their unemployment and the changes that threatened their livelihoods.
Successful political change for lower class men
Trade Unions: after he legalization of trade unions in 1824, a growing number of factory workers joined these groups, striving for better wages and working conditions.
Social and Economic Tensions in Early 20th Century Britain
Late 1890s: The British Labour Party was gaining traction as a significant political force, who were laborers demanding for better conditions and rights.
Demanded for a democratic shift to socialism.
Factors for Industrial Migration
Push factors included poverty, population growth.
Pull factors included the demand for labor overseas, the availability of land, and the advent of cheaper and faster transportation via railroads and steamships.
United States Industrialization
The U.S. government supported industrial growth through policies such as tax breaks, extensive grants of public land to railroad companies, and laws facilitating the formation of corporations.
racial and ethnic differences among laborers hindered class solidarity and the sustainability of socialism
Progressives successfully pushed for reforms like wages-and-hours legislation
Russian Industrialization
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