Native American History

Dakota Access Pipeline

who: Standing Rock Sioux reservation

what: A controversial pipeline project that was proposed to transport crude oil crossing under the Missouri River's Lake Oahe, which provides the Tribe's drinking water.

where: reservation: border between north and south dakota, pipeline: from western North Dakota to Illinois

when: 2016

why: represented bigger conflict- government disregard of native land, also racism, and multiple tribes banning together to protest against a common enemy

A controversial pipeline project that was proposed to transport crude oil from western North Dakota to Illinois, (Standing Rock Sioux reservation, it runs within a half-mile of the reservation's boundary, crossing under the Missouri River's Lake Oahe, which provides the Tribe's drinking water.) The route was gonna go through Bismarck (predominantly white neighborhood) so they rerouted so that it would go through the reservation, facing significant opposition from Native American tribes and environmental activists due to concerns over potential water contamination and violation of tribal lands.

Hohokam

Who: Indians- flourishing community

What: built irrigation ditches/canals, key stage in state formation= irrigation=organized society

Where: Pheonix, Arizona

When: 800-1400 CE

An ancient Native American culture that thrived in the southwestern United States- present day central and southern arizona, known for their sophisticated irrigation systems, agriculture, and large urban settlements.

Mound Builders

who: Adena, Hopewellian (1-6 CE), Mississippian Culture (peaked between 1100& 1300 CE).- dense urban centers, and cahokia people, 600 to 1400 CE.platform mounds, central plazas, communal fields

what: earthen mounds for ceremonial, burial, and residential purposes

where: Mississippi River Valley, ohio valley, mississippi area

when: 1-6 CE, and 1100& 1300 CE

why: People thought the mound builders were white people or that they were a more civilized race of indians that were killed off by the current indians (Thomas Jefferson)- speaks to the european preconceptions about indian capabilities - think they are not civilized enough/smart enough to be the mound builders

An ancient Native American culture noted for constructing large earthen mounds for ceremonial, burial, and residential purposes, primarily in the Mississippi River Valley.

Cahokia

Who: corn farmers, mound builders,

what: largest, most influential of mississippi cities

where: present day St. Louis, Missouri,

when: 600 to 1400 CE.

why: Stopped building mounds because of climate change(little ice age), soil exhaustion, euro diseases, euros brought pigs and they destroyed their crops, eventually people left and decided to settle in smaller more mobile organizations - devastation of columbian exchange, advanced tech

A pre-Columbian Native American city located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri, known for its complex society, large earthen mounds, and extensive trade networks, thriving around 600 to 1400 CE.

Buffalo Jump

who: Blackfoot, Crow, Arapaho, and Assiniboine, who lived in regions where such large cliff formations were prevalent.

what: herding an entire herd of bison off a cliff, man dressed as wounded calf and herd would surround him and then he would lead them off a cliff

where: natural cliffs in the American West and Canadian Prairies

when: 500 BC? over 2000 years ago?

why: hunting technique, bison are really important- they use its bone marrow, use for clothes, food, etc.

A technique used by Native American tribes to hunt buffalo by driving herds over cliffs, maximizing their food resources and raw materials.

The Reconquista

Who: Spanish

What: campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory taken by Muslims (originally from Northern Africa) in the Iberian Peninsula - spain/christians reconquer the land in bits 800 yrs of war,

Where: Iberian Peninsula

When: from the 8th to the 15th centuries.

Why: isabella and ferdinand unite 2 kingdoms (castille and aragon) and unite spain- restore catholicism, then they start the spanish inquisition, instilled a crusading spirit, this gave them confidence to try to conquer new land, spread catholicism, also turks had taken constantinople so europeans couldnt go east - started going west and to africa, portuguese find the canaries this way (where guanche people are)

A series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory taken by Muslims (originally from Northern Africa) in the Iberian Peninsula from the 8th to the 15th centuries.

Guanche people

Who: descendants of north africans who sailed to canaries in 2000 BC, didnt have metal, believed in supreme being, human and animal sacrifice, good and evil spirits, mummified people, goat skin for clothes, javelins, used a lot of obsidian

What: Iberians arrived (portuguese&spanish) and conquered and pillaged and justified it bc guanches weren’t catholic, enslaved guanche and forced them to work on plantations, spanish have horses and stell (advantage), guanches devastated by bubonic plague, pneumonia, tiphus (european diseases).

Where: Canary Islands

When: in 2000 BC. they sailed to canaries,1490s iberians arrive, 1494- battle of acentejo= only guanche victory, by the mid 1500s Guanches had ceased to exist as a people

Why: example of what was to come for indigenous people in the americas, example of danger of the crusading spirit (result of reconquista), they employed a logic of elimination (settler colonialism and exclusion frontier), attempt to engineer a complete disappearance of the original inhabitants of a place.
he indigenous Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands, known for their unique culture and resistance to European colonization.

Settler Colonialism

A form of colonialism where settlers establish permanent residences on indigenous lands, often displacing the native populations and exploiting resources. and trying to wipe out/remove native pop to make room for settlers and use land.

The Columbian Exchange

Who: 1492 Columbus sails to americas and european contact happens

What: exchange of plants, animals, diseases (North american pop plumetted 74% from 1492-1800, in both americas plumetted 89% between 1492-1650, everywhere euros went after cortez disease had alr hit

Europe to Americas: cattle, horses, pigs, wheat, rye, smallpox, measles, malaria

Americas to Europe: corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, syphilis

Where: Columbus sails to Hispaniola first

When: 1492-forever lasting effects

why: disease created the conditions for colonization- subdued/cleared out indians, changed indian life with horses(travel quicker, hunt easily, catch bison on horseback, easier to wage war, vunreble if u dont have horses), pigs ate their crops, new crops- new plants

The transfer of plants, animals, culture, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century.

Tenochtitlán

who: Aztecs, 1519 Hernan Cortez leads expedition into central Mexico, sees Tenochtitlan (capital of Aztec empire) 200k ppl in city but 5 million people in the empire

what: capital of aztec empire

where: central mexico

when: 1519

why: 2 years later empire collapsed, devastated by disease by 1521- half pop died after 1st year, disease spread to yucatan and mayas quickly, cortez takes control, impact of disease, also spaniards had steel armor, war dogs, horses, swords, aztecs only had bow and arrows

The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, known for its advanced architecture and complex society.

Smallpox

Who: brought by hernan cortez in 1519 to tenochtitlan and spread everywhere, devasted natives- ex mandans

What: disease

Where:started in central mexico and spread everywhere else

When: 1519-1840s

Why: epidemic of 1837, weakened natives, made settler colonialism easy bc it moved/spread faster than europeans clearing land for them - ex. plymouth, effects of columbian exchange,

In Native American history, smallpox was a catastrophic and deadly disease, introduced by Europeans, to which Indigenous peoples had no prior immunity and thus suffered devastating mortality rates, often exceeding 90%. The variola virus spread rapidly through communities, decimating populations, disrupting social structures, and facilitating European colonization and conquest. Epidemics continued for centuries, causing significant cultural loss and transforming the demographic landscape of North America. 

Calumet

who: started with arikara but many tribes including mandan used it

what: peace pipe, attached to ceremony which allowed outsiders to come into a community and interact peacefully with its inhabtants

where: along mississippi north/south dakota?

when: originated around 1300, after 1675 pipes were more common in mandans

why: pipe ceremony=diplomacy=essential to european progress

In Native American history, the calumet is a ceremonial smoking pipe, also known as a peace pipe, used in sacred rituals, diplomacy, and treaty councils to symbolize unity, respect, and the sharing of intentions. Crafted from stone or clay and often adorned with feathers and other natural elements, the calumet ritual connects participants to the spiritual world, with the smoke believed to carry prayers to the Creator. 

Earth Lodges

who: Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara,

what: permanent, circular, subterranean homes of earth and timber used by sedentary agricultural tribes

where: the Great Plains

when: beginning around 700 AD.

why: cultural, symbolic significance, built by women

Earth lodges were permanent, circular, subterranean homes of earth and timber used by sedentary agricultural tribes on the Great Plains, such as the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara, beginning around 700 AD. Built and owned by women, these substantial structures housed extended families and were re-built every 10 years. Their symbolic, communal significance extended to ceremonies and the symbolic connection to the heavens in Pawnee cosmology. 

Mandan People

who:Native American people who developed a permanent, agricultural village culture along the upper Missouri River, known for their large, round earth lodges and their role as a major trading nation.

what: They achieved success in their environment but faced catastrophic population declines due to smallpox epidemics, notably in 1781 and 1837, which reduced them to a handful of survivors.

where: north dakota along upper missouri river

when: during the 1760s, as they were a central hub in the fur trade and a significant agricultural community before diseases decimated their population. smallpox epidemics: 1781 and 1837

why: impact of disease, high tech, diplomacy, fur trade, merged with hidatsas, etc.

The Mandan were a Native American people who developed a permanent, agricultural village culture along the upper Missouri River, known for their large, round earth lodges and their role as a major trading nation. They achieved success in their environment but faced catastrophic population declines due to smallpox epidemics, notably in 1781 and 1837, which reduced them to a handful of survivors. Today, the Mandan are part of the Three Affiliated Tribes (MHA Nation) on the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota, alongside the Hidatsa and Arikara peoples.

Buffalo Bird Woman

who: a Hidatsa woman whose detailed accounts of traditional agriculture, foodways, and daily life were recorded by ethnographer Gilbert L. Wilson in the early 20th century.

what: invaluable insights into Hidatsa culture and sustainable farming practices, highlighting the crucial role of women in their agricultural society and providing a vital historical record for present-day understanding of Indigenous ecological knowledge. 

when:1839–1932

where: along the Knife River, a tributary of the Missouri River in present-day west-central North Dakota.

why: insights

Buffalo Bird Woman (c. 1839–1932), also known as Waheenee, was a Hidatsa woman whose detailed accounts of traditional agriculture, foodways, and daily life were recorded by ethnographer Gilbert L. Wilson in the early 20th century. Her legacy, preserved in works like Buffalo Bird Woman's Garden, offers invaluable insights into Hidatsa culture and sustainable farming practices, highlighting the crucial role of women in their agricultural society and providing a vital historical record for present-day understanding of Indigenous ecological knowledge. 

Epidemic of 1837

who: basically eliminated mandans 90% death rate

what: smallpox epidemic that devasted Mandan, Arikara, and Hidatsa tribes and significantly affected Assiniboines, Crees, and others.

-lack of food - rats

• lack of bison- migrated and used for hyde

• conflicts with lakota prevent hunting

• post cholera, measles, whooping cough- alr weak

• unvaccinated- northern tribes seen as expendable

where: the upper Missouri River region in the Great Plains

when: 1837

why: steam boats spread it effects of disease- waves- continuously keeps indians weak, forced them to adapt, social disruption, affected mandans most bc no vaccine- gov saw them as expendable, rats had alr devasted their crops, steamboats, etc., mental health toll- suicide and infanticide increases

The 1837 smallpox epidemic was a devastating outbreak on the Upper Missouri River that nearly wiped out the Mandan, Arikara, and Hidatsa tribes and significantly affected Assiniboines, Crees, and others. Introduced by the American Fur Company steamboat St. Peter's, the disease spread rapidly through villages, killing tens of thousands and leading to the surviving tribes' eventual consolidation at Like-a-Fish-Hook village. The epidemic caused immense social disruption, cultural trauma, and a shift in tribal ways of life. 

Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca

who: spanish explorer of the new world

what: they were supposed to take rafts to mexico but they didnt make it, made it to texas, enslaved at first but then he got a reputation as a healer that could perform miracles on the sick, 600 native ppl followed him, wrote a memoir where he describes communities before disease hit- rich and populated,

where: texas area

when: journey- 1528-36

why: see how native communities looked before disease

In Native American history, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca is known for his survival and extensive travels with Native American tribes in the American Southwest after the failed 1527 Narváez expedition, becoming a trader and faith healer. His firsthand account, La relación, provides unique ethnographic details about the various Native American groups he encountered and also influenced later Spanish policies by advocating for more humane treatment of indigenous peoples. 

“The Turk”

who: man who deceived coronado to save pueblo people

what: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado went north to find “cibola”- supposed city filled with gold, pulled up to pueblo people in new mexico - no gold there, commits massacre in 1540 bc hes mad theres no gold, spanish are raping and pillaging so the pueblo ppl tell coronado theres a city full of gold called quivira and the turk agreed to lead them there - he lies and leads them as far as possible until they realize hes making it up and execute him

where: new mexico

when: 1540= coronado expedition

why: brutality of spaniards, native resistance

The "Turk" in Native American history primarily refers to two distinct groups: a single individual, "El Turco", who guided Coronado's expedition

Calendar Stick

who: Oos:hikbina or O'odham, and pueblo people ig

what: way of recording history, buried with the keeper though so only somewhat recent history

where: new mexico area

when: 

why: different way of recording history- no record of really old events, why we dont have much info about native history today

In Native American history, calendar sticks, particularly the Oos:hikbina or O'odham calendar stick, served as vital mnemonic devices for recording oral history, events, and natural cycles. These sticks, often made from saguaro cactus ribs, were marked with symbols, notches, and colors to represent years, natural phenomena, and important tribal events, helping to pass down history from one generation to the next. 

Acoma Pueblo

who: native community in new mexico 

what: played a significant role in the Pueblo Rebellion of 1680 and faced Spanish conquest and violence, including the Acoma Massacre in 1599.

where: new mexico santa fe area

when: founded in 1150 AD.

why: faced massacres, brutality, but still joined successful pueblo revolt, native resistance

Acoma Pueblo, or Sky City, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in North America, founded by the Acoma people on a 360-foot mesa in New Mexico around 1150 AD. Known for its unique pottery and rich culture, Acoma played a significant role in the Pueblo Rebellion of 1680 and faced Spanish conquest and violence, including the Acoma Massacre in 1599. The Acoma people, a Keresan-speaking tribe, continue to live at the Pueblo, maintaining their traditions and producing fine pottery. 

Don Juan de Oñate

Who: Spanish conquistador, explorer and viceroy of the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in the viceroyalty of New Spain

what: went into pueblo, evicted ppl, took goods, women, food, ate crops

then his nephew saldivar demands provisions from acoma bc the spanish cant make their own food, but acoma didnt have enough for them so they kill saldivar

1599 Acoma massacre- Oñate hears and storms acoma killing 800 indigenous people and condemned everyone else to slavery, men over 25 had one foot cut off, - colonists lowk didnt fw him and had him removed in 1607

where: Santa Fe de Nuevo México

when:1550-1607

why: spanish brutality, native resistance is met with massacre, exclusive frontier, 

In 1598, the Spanish colonial governor Juan de Oñate put 507 Acoma on trial. Women between 12 and 25 were enslaved for 20 years at the Pueblo of Ohkay Owingeh. Men over the age of 25 had one foot cut off, and younger men were enslaved for 20 years. Oñate was later tried for excessive cruelty.

The Pueblo Revolt

who: led by popé, all pueblo ppl came tg and some apache joined too,

what: pueblo ppl losing respect for spanish- preists tryna convery everyone and getting on conflict with colonists all the time, pueblo tribes collab bc of common enemy, disease, drought, raid from other indians, preists demand more from pueblo behavior and tribute,

1675- priests arrest and publicly whip 47 pueblo shamans,

pueblo ppl & apache destroyed farms, churches, killed spanish, mutilated priests, remaining spanish fled south,

casted off christian names&marriages, polygamy restored

where: santa fe new mexico

when: 1680, diego jose de vargas reconquested new mexico in 1692

why: biggest setback for euro expansion, native resistance, unified against a common enemy

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was a successful, coordinated uprising by Pueblo peoples in New Mexico against Spanish colonial rule, led by the Tewa medicine man Popé. Driven by years of oppression, religious persecution, forced labor, and resource exploitation, Pueblo communities united to expel the Spanish for 12 years, destroying settlements and burning churches to reclaim their traditional way of life. This unique event is the only successful Native American uprising to drive out European conquerors from their territory.  

Popé

who: one of the shamans that was whipped, tewa leader

what: led pueblo revolt

where: santa fe new mexico

when: 1675- whipping of shamans 1680- revolt 

why: religious leader

Po'pay was a Tewa leader who masterminded the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, a successful uprising that expelled the Spanish from New Mexico for 12 years. Under his leadership, Pueblo people coordinated an attack on Santa Fe, destroying Spanish settlements and religious sites to eradicate Spanish culture and religion from their lands. The revolt demonstrated the power of organized Indigenous resistance and temporarily restored the Pueblo way of life, though the Spanish eventually returned in force. 

King Phillip’s War

who: metacom=king phillip

what: english. kill 3 indians, indiand retaliate by looting and burning, english retaliate- chain effect- diff tribes get involved for different reasons, natives start adopting euro war methods, english attacked prayer town bc they couldnt find indians they were looking for (towns that converted to christianity so as not to be attacked) and massacred & sent survivors to deer island

1676- kill metacom

war created common american identity/ common enemy =indians

where: new england

when: 1675-78

why: american identity forming around indian hatred, indians unify against common enemy, indian resistance

King Philip's War (1675-1678) was a brutal conflict in New England where the Wampanoag chief Metacom (King Philip) led a coalition of Native American tribes to resist English expansion and assertion of authority over their lands and lives. Triggered by increasing settler encroachment and tensions over sovereignty, the war resulted in devastating losses for Native communities, including widespread death and enslavement, the decimation of tribes, and a permanent loss of political sovereignty in southern New England. The conflict ultimately ended with Metacom's death and the scattering of his forces, marking the end of Native resistance to English control in the region

Deer Island

who: people from prayer town that survived english massacre during king phillips war were sent to deer island 

what: they basically all died from cold and starvation

where: near mass

when: 1675-76

why: native massacred- basically genocide- tribes went extinct- frontier of exclusion

In the history of the Boston area, Deer Island was used by Indigenous communities for thousands of years but became notorious as a site for the internment of Nipmuc people and other Native Americans during the King Philip's War in the winter of 1675-76, where many perished from cold and starvation. This grim history is commemorated by Indigenous groups, who continue to work to memorialize the island and protect the burial sites of those who died there, highlighting a painful legacy of colonial oppression and mistreatment. 

Metacom

who: King Phillip- led king phillip’s war

what: king phillips war bruh

where: new england

when: 1675-1676

why: land disputes and consistent conflict with british colonists

Metacom, also known as King Philip, was a Wampanoag sachem (chief) who led the King Philip's War (1675-1676) against English colonists in New England. The war was caused by escalating land disputes, cultural clashes, and perceived threats to Indigenous sovereignty, leading to a devastating conflict that resulted in the deaths of thousands on both sides. Metacom was captured and executed in 1676, a pivotal moment that effectively ended the war and significantly weakened Indigenous resistance and land control in the region. 

The Powhatan Confederacy

who: Powhatan was a man that brought indigenous groups he conquered together by intermarrying tribes,

what: he brought many tribes tg and probs wanted jamestown to join his confederacy but they didnt wanna mix with indians and demanded food- powhatan killed them, english wanted to try kidnapping powhatan to hold him for ransom for food- john smith led this mission and then pocahontas saved him from his execution (powhatans daughter- real name motoaka), - rpobs a mock execution to form diplomatic relations

eventually pocahontas uncle coordinated attack on virginians, peace in 1632

eventually bro was executed and powhatan confederacy basically crumbled

where: virginia

when: confederacy: 1570-1646 (but jamestown was settled in 1607)

why: frontier of exclusion, attempts at diplomacy, intertribal relations

The Powhatan Confederacy was a powerful political and social alliance of Algonquian-speaking Native American tribes in the 17th century, led by Chief Powhatan in what is now Virginia, to provide mutual protection and control over resources in the Tidewater region. After an initial period of diplomacy and trade, relations deteriorated following the death of Chief Powhatan, leading to violent conflicts with English colonists over land and resources, which resulted in the decline and eventual fragmentation of the Confederacy. 

Pocahontas

who: algonquin speaking powhatan’s daughter, real name: Motoaka

what: daughter of chief of powhatan confederacy, and saved john smith from being executed to form diplomatic relations with virginians, eventually marries john rolfe

where: virginia area

when: 1607ish

why: diplomacy

Pocahontas was a Powhatan woman whose story is intertwined with the early English settlement of Jamestown, where she served as an intermediary, was kidnapped, and later married John Rolfe, though her story is often sensationalized and differs greatly from her tragic reality. Born Matoaka around 1596, she was the daughter of the paramount chief Wahunsenaca (Powhatan), and her life reflects the complex and often violent interactions between the English colonists and the Powhatan Chiefdom. 

The Fur Trade

who: french traded with indians- frontier of inclusion,

what: traded pelts for euro tools, nations with access to trade= more powerful, french wanted fur coats- beavers, 

where: along major North American waterways, including the St. Lawrence River, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River and its tributaries, as well as in the Illinois Country and the Ohio Country 

when: 1608 quebec founded, euros alr trading though by early 1500s (Mi’kmaq first nation to get involved in trade),

why: new power dynamic - more trade=more power, beavers almost go extinct- change of environment, increased intertribal conflicts, 

The Fur Trade was a centuries-long exchange between European colonists and Native American tribes for animal pelts, which dramatically altered Native American life, economies, and cultures by introducing European goods, fostering new dependencies and conflicts, and leading to environmental devastation. It began in the 1500s with French and English fishermen and became a lucrative economic driver for both European powers and Native American nations, profoundly shaping the continent's political and social landscape. 

Coureurs des bois

who: young sons of trading people who were woods runners they interacted with indigenous people/women and influenced one another

what: french learned snow shoes, sharing moose, spear salmon, dress with mocasins, leggings out of moose, deer and seal skin, pigeon languages emerge, learn from sexual freedom of indigenous- child out of wedlock =good bc the woman is more fertile, french missionaries learn indigenous languages to preach and combine native and christian beliefs - adapt, interacted with Algonquin, Huron, Iroquois (Haudenosaunee), and Ojibwe

where: primarily in the Great Lakes region,

when: operated in the New France wilderness, during the 17th and 18th centuries

why: not all colonial encounters were the same- frontier of inclusion

In Native American history, the coureurs des bois were French-Canadian fur traders in the 17th and 18th centuries who operated independently in the wilderness of North America, establishing direct trade relationships and cultural exchanges with Indigenous peoples. By learning Indigenous languages and customs, they facilitated the fur trade, explored vast territories, and built alliances, which significantly expanded the French presence and influence in the continent. 

The seven years war

who: french vs english - natives forced to pick sides

what: war over land, natives mostly allied with french, basically french & indians were lowk winning- but indians would win territory and then leave it (bruh), natives started to get in conflict with french & lowk abandoned them, then GB started pouring money into this war/more resources & tables turned in favor of brits, 

1759 british took quebec

treaty of paris ended it in 1763

where: North America and Europe

when: 1756 to 1763

why: loss of French territory and influence, which created instability and conflict for Indigenous peoples, also GB put sm money in it they had to start hella taxing colonists- american rev, indians now surrounded by eng settlements 

In the French and Indian War (part of the broader Seven Years' War), Native American tribes were drawn into a conflict between the French and British empires in North America, leading to shifts in power, increased tensions, and the eventual loss of French territory and influence, which created instability and conflict for Indigenous peoples. Many tribes, particularly Algonquian speakers, allied with the French, while the Iroquois Confederacy sided with the British, forcing Indigenous peoples to fight against each other and disrupting existing political strategies. The war concluded with a British victory, ending the French presence in North America and creating new pressures on Native populations that contributed to later conflicts like Pontiac's War. 

The Haudenosaunee Confederation

who:

what:

where:

when:

why:

The Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy, is a powerful political alliance of six Native American nations—the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and later the Tuscarora—that established a sophisticated system of governance, law, and diplomacy in North America. Formed under the Great Law of Peace, this confederacy influenced the region's politics, economics, and culture for centuries, and its principles are said to have influenced the democratic structure of the United States government.

The Ohio confederacy

who: Shawnee, Miami, and Delaware to resist American expansion after the Revolutionary War.

what: response to US desire to expand north of ohio river valley, led by little turtle

where: ohio

when: 1790s, defeated at battle of fallen timbers in 1794, disbanded at the signing of treaty of greenvoille- signed by little turtle & ceded land

why: resistance and alliance

In Native American history, the term "Ohio Confederacy" most often refers to the Western Confederacy (also known as the Northwest Confederacy) formed by tribes like the Shawnee, Miami, and Delaware to resist American expansion after the Revolutionary War. Alternatively, the area was dominated by the Iroquois Confederacy during the colonial era, which expanded its influence into Ohio. Finally, Tecumseh's Confederacy was a later, more unified alliance of Midwestern tribes that also sought to repel American settlers. 

The Battle of Fallen Timbers

who: Indians led by little turtle and (british they thought) vs american colonists

what: 80% of fed budget went to wars with little turtle, colonists were lowk winning so confederate indians ask british for help and they agree but then close the gates on them and the indians are massacred

where: Ohio

when: 1794

why: indian land ceded after this battle, british are done getting involved

The Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, was a decisive U.S. victory over a Native American confederacy during the Northwest Indian War, leading to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. This treaty opened the Northwest Territory to American settlement and effectively ended British influence in the region, though the Northwest Indian Confederation suffered significant losses and the betrayal of their British allies. 

Braddock’s Defeat

who: Indians and French vs British

what: the french and indians secure fort duquesne for french

where: PA

when: 1755

why: part of french indian war that the french/indians won, they didnt lose bc of the indians

Braddock's Defeat was the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, where a British-American army led by General Edward Braddock was routed by a combined force of French and Native American warriors during the French and Indian War. Native American tactics, utilizing the dense woods for cover and guerrilla warfare, proved far superior to the British regulars' conventional European formations, resulting in a devastating defeat for the British and securing Fort Duquesne for the French for several years. 

Pontiac’s War

who: Pontiac = Odawa war chief, led the resistance movement,

what:nations come tg to fight off colonial forces post french indian war- bc now french r gone and thewyre lowk hoping theyll come back, captured british forts and raided settlements w/ goal of luring french back and pushing brits out, didnt work but got concessions from GB,  both were weak and tired so BG said proclamation line to make Indians happy (cant go west of appalachian mountains

where: the Great Lakes region and the Ohio Country in North America

when: 1763-66

why: pan-indian identity begins to form, cultural changes- new creation myth neolin(indians and euros created seperately), led to hardeing of native racism, colonists mad &being taxed for 7 yrs war simultaneously, 

Pontiac's War (1763-1766) was a significant pan-Indian resistance movement led by Odawa chief Pontiac against British colonization in North America after the French and Indian War. Triggered by French defeat and the loss of French-Indigenous alliances, Native nations allied to challenge British policies and assert their sovereignty. The conflict involved the capture of British forts and widespread attacks across the Great Lakes and Ohio River Valley, ultimately leading to a stalemate, diplomatic solutions, and the implementation of the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which recognized Native autonomy and influenced colonial grievances leading to the American Revolution. 

The Paxton Boys 

who: colonists massacre 20 susquehannok natives in 1763, 

what: native sentiment post 7 years war

where: conestoga town, lancaster PA

when: 1763

why: native sentiment, no punishment

The Paxton Boys were a mob of Pennsylvania frontier settlers who, in December 1763, murdered 20 unarmed Conestoga Native Americans in retaliation for attacks on settlements during Pontiac's War. Fearing the Conestoga, who they suspected of colluding with the Lenape and Shawnee attackers, the Paxton Boys then marched on Philadelphia in February 1764, intending to kill protected Moravian Lenape and Mohican people but were dispersed by a delegation led by Benjamin Franklin. 

Joseph Brant

who: mohawk leader who led haudenasaunee forces during the american revolution, educated man- dartmouth, could talk to british, good military leader

what: side with england during rev, causes haudenasaunee to lowk. break up bc some ppl joined eng forces some didnt wanna 

where: born in ohio county

when: battle of oriskany= 1777- brant and british slaughtered oneidas (part of confederacy)- place of great sadness, by 1783 brant was winning his battles but GB had lost and surrendered, 1784- treaty of fort stanwick- americans hold people hostage and force brant to give up haudenasaunee land - they signed it and fled to canada

why: he was winning but GB lost- diff narrative, intertribal conflict

Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) was a prominent Mohawk military and political leader who played a crucial role in the American Revolutionary War and its aftermath, advocating for the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) people by leading them to side with the British during the war and later negotiating for land and fair treatment in Canada. He was a skilled warrior, diplomat, and scholar, educated in English and Indigenous languages, who worked to preserve the future of his people by fostering alliances and promoting education and Christianity. 

The Battle of Oriskany

who: brant and british forces vs oneidas and americans

what: they slaightered oneidas (who were originally in haudenasaunee confederacy - ppl from their own confederacy), a place of great sadness, american won though but high casualties on both sides

where: fort stanwix

when: 1777

why: splitting up tribes that were once allied

The Battle of Oriskany was a brutal August 1777 ambush and subsequent six-hour battle during the American Revolutionary War, notable for its heavy Native American participation, primarily Iroquois (Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga) allied with the British, fighting against a Patriot militia force, which included a contingent of Oneida warriors. The battle exemplified a "civil war" within the Iroquois Confederacy, as neighbors and even families were divided by loyalties to the British or the American cause, fought over land and power in the Mohawk Valley, and resulted in a strategic victory for the Americans as it helped relieve the Siege of Fort Stanwix.

The Proclamation Line

who: GB established it as a concession after Pontiac’s war

what: line prohibiting settlement past a certain point

where: cant go west of appalachians

when: 1763

why: causes controversy among colonists who feel entitled to this land after fighting for GB in 7 yrs war, anti native sentiment,

The Proclamation Line of 1763 was a British decree that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, creating a boundary between colonial and Native American lands to reduce conflict after the French and Indian War. For Native Americans, it represented a formal acknowledgment of their land rights and a government-to-government relationship but was ultimately ignored by settlers, leading to continued land disputes and warfare. The proclamation also frustrated colonists who saw it as an impediment to their westward expansion and a violation of their perceived rights, thus contributing to the growing tensions with Great Britain. 

The Treaty of Paris (1763)

Who: treaty between GB and France

What: end of 7 years war and transferred land from france to england

where: 

when: 1763

why: encoroachment without native consent, led to pontiacs war, got rid of french for good, 

The Treaty of Paris (1763) was disastrous for Native Americans because it transferred vast North American territories from France to Britain without their consent, leading to intensified British encroachment on Indigenous lands and sparking resistance such as Pontiac's Rebellion. The treaty, which also led to the Proclamation of 1763 and the Proclamation Line, ended the French and Indian War but created a fundamental shift in power, with Native nations losing their French allies and facing an emboldened British colonizing presence.  

The Treaty of Paris (1783)

who: between GB and American colonists

what: ended the American Revolutionary War

where:

when: 1783

why:establishing U.S. territorial boundaries that disregarded Indigenous land claims and rights, leading to significant land cessions, the loss of sovereignty, and increased conflicts with westward-expanding settlers.

The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War, had a devastating impact on Native American nations by establishing U.S. territorial boundaries that disregarded Indigenous land claims and rights, leading to significant land cessions, the loss of sovereignty, and increased conflicts with westward-expanding settlers. Most Native tribes were not represented in the negotiations, and many, despite being allies with the British or even the Americans, found their lands and interests ignored by the treaty's terms.

Little Turtle

who: miami chief who was a key leader in ohio confederacy war against american explansion, eventually would become preogressive - wanted to make peace with whites- clashed with tenskwatawa

what: confed forces victory over americans in 1791,

where:

when: ohio confed war= 1790-94

why: british & spanish start to attack american bc theyre weakened by little turtle

Little Turtle (Mihšihkinaahkwa) was a prominent Miami war chief who led a powerful Native American confederation to a decisive victory over U.S. forces in the Battle of the Wabash (St. Clair's Defeat) in 1791, the most significant defeat ever suffered by the U.S. military against Indigenous peoples. He was a strategic military leader and orator who united tribes in the Northwest Territory to resist American expansion before ultimately advocating for and signing the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ceded significant land in Ohio to the U.S. Little Turtle spent his later years as an advocate for peace and the welfare of his people, urging them to avoid alcohol and encouraging them to keep the peace with the United States. 

The Indian Intercourse Act

who: George Washington signs it

what: recognizes legal separation between states and indian country, established indians as non-citizens but subject of their own groups with some sovereignty and treaty-making and diplomacy the official policy of the fed gov, also established right to promote civilization among indian tribes

where: everywhere??

when: 1790

why: doesnt really stop encroachment 

The Indian Intercourse Acts were a series of U.S. federal laws passed from 1790 to 1834 that regulated trade and relations between Native Americans and non-Native settlers, aiming to assert federal control over land sales, prevent conflicts, and foster assimilation. Key measures included requiring government licenses for traders, prohibiting private purchases of Native land, and establishing federal authority over treaties. While intended to create a regulated environment and protect Native Americans, these acts ultimately facilitated westward expansion and contributed to the eventual forced displacement of tribes. 

Tecumseh

who: tenskwtawa’s brother, military leader

what: wanted to rebuilt military coalition and traveled to the deep south to recruit people, in 1810 he tried to prevent land surveyors from working in indiana, was attacked by william harrison in response. Allied with GB during war of 1812, neither GB or Americans lost but natives lost in battle of thames when tecumseh was killed and the movement ended, last movement of native resistance in the east.

where: war of 1812- -west ohio country battle grounds

when: important figure in war of 1812, killed in 1813 in battle of thames

why: nation building set back by his death - last movement of native resistance in the east.

Tecumseh was a Shawnee warrior and leader who organized a pan-Native American confederacy to resist white settlement and create an autonomous Indian territory in the early 19th century. He allied with the British in the War of 1812 but was killed in battle in 1813, leading to the collapse of his confederacy and the end of significant Native American resistance in the Ohio Valley. 

Handsome Lake

who: seneca prophet- was an alcoholic but in 1799 he fell into a coma and had a revelation- his ppl would recover if he spread message of renewal,

what: he advoacted for returning to ancient rights and ceremonies, renounce alcohol, everyone learn english, influenced by christianity- good and evil, heaven and hell, 

where: seneca village in NY

when: 1799 - he had his first vision

why: revitalization and renewal, trying to craft a nation within a nation/nation building

Handsome Lake was a Seneca prophet who founded a new religious movement, the Gai\'wiio or "Good Message," in the late 18th and early 19th centuries to provide moral guidance and a cultural revival for the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) amidst the severe social disruption and dislocation caused by colonization and the loss of ancestral lands. His teachings, later codified as the "Code of Handsome Lake," promoted traditional Haudenosaunee values, condemned alcohol abuse, and encouraged a blend of indigenous spirituality with concepts of Christian morality, leading to a significant renewal of cultural and spiritual life among the Iroquois. 

Sequoyah

who: inventor of cherokee syllabary

what: he was one of the cherokee traditionalists that moved west after battle of horseshoe bend, he wanted a way to communicate with the chreokees he left behind- created syllabary, literacy rates spikes among cherokees, cherokee pheonix created,

where: Alabama and later migrated to Arkansas and then to Oklahoma (Indian Territory).

when: early 1820s- syllabry created

why: revitalization

Sequoyah was a Cherokee linguist who uniquely created a written language—a syllabary—for the Cherokee language, a major linguistic achievement in Native American history. This innovation brought about a "new age of Cherokee civilization," leading to high literacy rates, the establishment of newspapers like the Cherokee Phoenix, and the dissemination of Cherokee culture and laws. Sequoyah also participated in Cherokee politics, advocating for his people during periods of forced removal and striving to unite the scattered nation. 

Tenskwatawa

who: shawnee prophet who founded prophets town

what: founded prophets town, wanted ppl to abandon white tools, no econ dependence on whites, existence of heaven and hell/ if u didnt join him u would go to hell with americans, 

where: prophets town= indiana

when: founded prophets town in 1809, 

why: revitalization and nation building

Tenskwatawa, known as the Shawnee Prophet, was a spiritual leader and religious figure in early 19th-century North America who, alongside his brother Tecumseh, promoted a Pan-Indian movement to resist U.S. territorial expansion by returning to traditional ways and rejecting white American culture. He founded Prophetstown as a cultural center and led religious gatherings that inspired resistance but experienced decline after the destruction of Prophetstown at the Battle of Tippecanoe. 

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

who: traditionalist creeks and cherokees vs andrew jackson and progressive cherokees

what: andrew jackson and progressives win, afterwards traditionalists fled west and progressives stayed, collected slaves, became part of US economy, became part of deep south agriculture

where: central alabama

when:1814

why: progressives faring better, further displacement of traditionalists, pushed west

The Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814 was a decisive American victory during the Creek War, where General Andrew Jackson's forces defeated the "Red Stick" Creek faction led by Chief Menawa. The battle resulted in the Creek loss of over 20 million acres of land through the Treaty of Fort Jackson and cemented Jackson's national hero status, paving the way for increased U.S. pressure on Native American populations.  

Frontiers of Inclusion

who: french

what: wanted to coexist with natives, made active efforts to adapt to them, missionaries blended religious beliefs and learned indigenous languages, coureur du bois, exchanged clothes- french adopted many indigenous traits and vice versa

where: maybe quebec area and a little lower

when: 17th and 18th centuries mostly? but been trading since like early 1500s

why: not all colonialism looks the same

"Frontiers of inclusion" describes European colonization models, primarily by Spain and France, where Indigenous peoples were partially integrated into colonial society through intermarriage, conversion, and alliances, though often at the bottom of the social hierarchy. This contrasts with "frontiers of exclusion" used by the English, who sought Native land and generally excluded Indigenous peoples from their society, leading to conflict and displacement. 

Frontiers of Exclusion

who: the english

what: settler colonialism- claim land and become majority by pushing ppl-expulsion(trail of tears) out or exterminating them- genocide, hiving off pattern of settlement, small chunks of land at a time, tryna recreate europe, creation of reservations for indians so the rest of the land can go to settlers- confining indians to one space

where: ex. jamestown- 1607 but lowk they couldnt survive on their own/without native help and ppl kept dying- the only reason it didnt disappear like roanoke is because ppl kept coming in

when: 1607

why: expulsion, destruction, ethnic cleansing- explains a lot of what happened when french left after 7 years war

In Native American history, a "frontier of exclusion" describes colonial approaches, particularly by the English and Dutch, where settlers pushed Native Americans off desired lands and excluded them from the developing colonial society, prioritizing land acquisition over co-existence or incorporation. This is contrasted with a "frontier of inclusion," seen in Spanish and French colonies, where alliances and integration with Native populations were sometimes pursued. The English model of exclusion led to displacement, conflict, and the systematic removal of Native peoples from their ancestral territories.