Radical Reformers — Govt. Responses

What did late 18th century govts. have few of?

Late 18th-C govts had v. few weapons at disposal to counter growth of radicalism.

Why was it difficult to move troops quickly ?

No organised police force to maintain order in towns +, in pre-railway age, difficult to move numbers of troops with speed to potential trouble spots.

What did spies do?

Govt resorted to spies, who infiltrated corresponding societies + reported back to ministers on activities.

Who did govt. rely on?

• Relied on local magistrates to control towns + enforce number of laws passed by Pitt's govt in 1790s.

• Role increased in importance from 1793, when Britain went to war against France.

What was more essential during French war?

Thereafter, even more essential to suppress radical activities + promote spirit of national loyalty + patriotism.

When was royal proclamation against seditious meetings?

Royal proclamation of 1792 against seditious writings followed by more direct actions against reformers.

When were radical delegates sent to Edinburgh ?

1793, ICS + revived SCI sent delegates to meeting in Edinburgh to agree on calling of national reform convention with sole intention of pressing for parl. reform.

What happened to these delegates sent to Edinburgh?

Govt saw meeting as potentially subversive, sent in troops + arrested several of delegates.

When was national reform convention called?

Despite setback, reform societies regrouped, + early in 1794 announced calling of national reform convention.

Why was the timing of this convention unfortunate?

• Timing unfortunate.

• Britain had been at war with France since 1793, + there was v. little sympathy for reformers who appeared to be dividing nation at critical time.

What were leaders of the LCS and SCI charged with?

Armed with info provided by network of spies, govt arrested several leaders of LCS + SCI, + charged them with high treason.

What did the govt. suspend?

At same time, parl, prompted by Pitt, suspended habeas corpus.

When was habeas corpus suspended ?

1794

What did the suspension of habeas corpus allow the govt. to do?

Allowed govt time to interview accused + prepare case against them.

What growth were the govt. concerned with?

Govt had become deeply concerned at growth of LCS.

Was the LCS large?

Although at height had no more than 5,000 members, reform message was reaching large + sympathetic audience.

What did Pitt overestimate ?

Pitt overestimated size and power of LCS.

Why did more LCS groups form?

Society kept meetings deliberately small to encourage involvement of every member, so more groups formed as membership grew.

What were the govt. convinced the LCS was doing?

• Govt convinced that organisation was expanding rapidly, especially as Hardy had declared membership would be unlimited.

• No wonder Pitt believed LCS posed threat to existence of state.

When did the trial of the leaders take place?

Trials of accused took place towards end of 1794.

What were the govt. unable to present in the trial?

Despite lengthy pre-trial examination of defendants, govt unable to present convincing case to courts.

What did the prosecution claim the LCS was doing?

• In order to support charge of high treason, prosecution claimed LCS was planning assassination of George Ill.

• Evidence prod. to support claim was flimsy + largely invented.

What did the jury think of the prosecutions evidence?

Jury refused to accept evidence +, after lengthy trials, acquitted defendants.

What did the events of 1794 show?

Events of 1794 showed how seriously govt, + Pitt in particular, took threat of domestic unrest + opposition.

What had the french war convinced Pitt of?

1785, Pitt had proposed some limited measures of parl. reform, but rev. + French war convinced him of necessity to maintain stability at home, even if meant imposing substantial limits on personal freedom.

What purpose did the LCS trials serve for the govt?

• Although LCS trials didn’t lead to any convictions, served purpose for govt.

• Most of LCS leadership, including Hardy, withdrew from radical politics.

Who did the govt. continue to harass?

For rest of 1790s, Pitt's govt continued to harass radical movements, + was prepared to change existing laws to achieve purpose.

What is seditious writing?

• Writing or speeches designed to promote rebellions against govt or monarchy.

• Term 'sedition 1st used in Elizabeth I's reign.

What is treason?

• Treason Act passed 1351 during reign of Edward I.

• Defined high treason in v. narrow terms: aiming to kill king; waging CW; + supporting king's enemies at home or abroad.

What was the year 1795 a time of?

Year 1795 was time of war, distress + growing unrest.

What had the French War done to trade?

French war had dislocated Britain's overseas trade, leading to rapidly rising u/e in industrial towns.

What were these economic difficulties compounded by?

Difficulties compounded by poor harvests + inevitable rise in food prices.

What were thrown a the kings coach, and what did the govt. do?

When stones thrown at George III's coach, govt used event as pretext to take strong action.

What law did the govt. amend?

Failure of 1794 treason trials persuaded ministers to amend treason law to strengthen powers against radicalism.

What had existing treason law made it impossible to do?

Existing laws against treason made it impossible to convict ICS leaders, + govt decided to extend definition of treason to go beyond simply treasonable actions.

When was the Treason Act?

1795

What did the Treason Act 1875 make it an offence to?

• Treason Act 1795 made it offence to kill, or even to harm, king.

• More ominously for reformers, treason defined as any intention 'to intimidate or overawe either Houses or either HoP'.

• Meant anybody outside parl who called for parl. reform could be charged.

What was the Treason Act accompanied by?

Treason Act accompanied by Seditious Meetings Act, passed in same year.

When was the Seditious Meetings Act?

1795

What did the Seditious Meetings Act do?

• Act restricted size of public meetings to 50 people, unless approved in advance by magistrates.

• Large outdoor meetings of 1000s had been taking place in early 1790s, but now effectively banned.

What have some histroians seen 1790s as?

Some historians have seen 1790s as decade of repression imposed by Pitt's govt, in alliance with magistrates.

Did Pitt have many other options?

Difficult to see what other course was open to him.

What did the govt. have no choice on?

At time of heightened national crisis, govt had no choice but to maintain order in Britain + suppress rev. principles being spread by armies they were fighting.

What did the govt. not resort to?

Although govt did employ spies + informers against reform movement, used parl + law at all times rather than resorting to openly unconstitutional activity.

What did Pitt’s policies serve?

Pitt's policies served purpose.

What happened to radical activity?

Radical activity rapidly diminished, + supplanted for many years by development of patriotic feeling as result of long years of war against France.

What was there little support for?

In such environment, little support for reforming ideas, which carried with them more than whiff of treachery.

What happened to leading radicals?

Leading radicals silenced or escaped abroad.

Where did Paine live?

1792 - 1802, Paine lived in France, where continued to prod. reformist pamphlets.

What did Paine say in Age of Reason?

His Age of Reason, published 1794 - 1797, attacked errors + corruption of Christian churches, + promoted ideas + values of natural religion, or deism.

Did his target audiences like his ideas?

His ideas found little favour with his target audiences in Britain + France, or USA, where spent last years of life.

When did War with France end?

1815, after 22 years of almost constant conflict, wars with France came to end.

Who won the French War?

British forces had achieved victory, + Britain emerged as leading power in Europe.

What was peace abroad not accompanied with?

However, peace abroad not accompanied by peace at home, and years to 1819, Lord Liverpool's govt faced number of serious challenges to authority.

Did the economy immediately improve?

Return of peace not lead to immediate improvement in country's economy.

What did the economy fall into?

Harvests poor +, after brief post-war boom, economy fell into depression.

What made unemployment worse?

Rising u/e was made worse by speedy demobilisation of 300,000 troops.

What did the govt. believe on the economy?

Govt did little to alleviate distress, clinging to laissez-faire belief that economy would revive in time, without need for govt intervention.

What conspiracy did ministers believe in?

Radical activities 1815-17 led ministers to believe in existence of broad national revolutionary conspiracy.

What events linked to the conspiracy of insurrection?

Work of Hampden Clubs, Spenceans' hare-brained attempt at rev. at Spa Fields, attack on Prince Regent, + Blanketeers all seemed to be linked series of events that would lead to general insurrection.

What was this conspiracy view reinforced by?

Their view reinforced by info fed to Home Secretary by govt's own spy network.

When did the govt. take firm action?

In aftermath of Spa Fields, therefore, govt decided to take firm action.

How many measures were passed during 1817?

During 1817, Liverpool's govt passed 3 measures designed to combat radical activity.

What measure was made permanent?

Treason Act 1795 due to lapse on death of George III, but attacks on Regent persuaded parl. to make Act permanent measure.

What was suspended again?

Habeas corpus suspended for all those suspected of treasonable activities.

What did this suspension allow?

This measure gave ministers time to prepare case against radicals, but also took leading radicals such as Samuel Bamford out of circulation for sev. months before released without charge.

What did the seditious meetings build on?

Seditious Meetings Act 1817 built on terms of 1795 measure.

What power were Justices of Peace given?

Justices of Peace were given power to attend any public meeting, + could disperse if considered it to be unlawful assembly.

What oath was banned?

Societies + organisations whose members required to swear secret oath banned outright.

What clubs were suppressed due to name?

Govt demonstrated fear of Spenceans by suppressing all Spencean clubs by name.

What did these acts become known as?

Like 1795 Acts, 1817 measures quickly became known as 'Gagging Acts'.

Were these acts successful in the short term?

Succeeded in aim of quelling unrest in short term, especially London.

Were these acts successful longer term?

When most of terms lapsed in 1818, radical activities simply sprang up once more.

What was the most important post-war meeting?

Most important post-war meeting was at St Peter's Fields in Manchester in Aug 1819.

What did the govt. think of Peterloo?

Peterloo appeared to govt to be well-organised + threatening action, especially because of discipline of crowds, who had marched to meeting with almost military efficiency.

What was the govt. determined to restore?

Govt determined to restore + maintain order.

What proposals did the govt. meet to consider?

Parl met at end of 1819 to consider proposals from Lord Sidmouth, Home Secretary, aimed at preventing similar disturbances in future.

When were the 6 acts?

By end of year (1819) , so-called '6 Acts' had all passed into law.

What was the most important of the 6 acts?

1 of most important of Acts was Unlawful Drilling Act.

Why was the unlawful drilling act the most important ?

Many of those who attended at Peterloo were known to have been practising marching + drilling on moors outside Manchester for many months.

What did Bamford say on these activities?

In memoirs, Samuel Bamford suggested there was nothing sinister in these activities, but that organisers of meeting wanted to disarm critics by show of 'cleanliness, sobriety + decorum'.

How did the govt. disagree on their view on these frequent marches?

Govt took diff. view, believing frequent practising of marches could be seen as training for future insurrection.

What did the unlawful drilling act ban?

Act banned unlawful military-style drilling, with harsh penalty of transportation imposed on any lawbreakers.

What was the unlawful drilling act accompanied by?

Seizure of Arms Act

What did the Seizure of Arms Act do?

Empowered magistrates to enter any property where they suspected arms being stored

What did the Misdemeanours Act do?

• Misdemeanours Act reduced ability of any arrested person from being granted bail.

• Liverpool's govt wanted to prevent any further huge radical demonstrations on scale of Peterloo.

What did the Seditious Meetings Prevention Act do?

• Seditious Meetings Prevention Act revived terms of 1795 + 1817 Acts, many of which had been allowed to lapse.

• Public meetings once again limited to 50 people, + could be conducted at level of parish only.

What did the Seditious Meetings Prevention Act attempt to curtail?

Measure was sig. attempt to curtail individual freedom, + strongly opposed by Whig opposition.

When was the Seditious Meetings Prevention Act repealed?

Eventually repealed in 1824.

What was radicalism underpinned by?

Govt knew radicalism was strongly underpinned + influenced by its own press.

What did the Criminal Libel Act do?

Criminal Libel Act 1819, proved to be ineffective in operation, intro. penalty of transportation for libellous writings.

What was more improtant than the Criminal Libel Act?

More important was Newspapers + Stamp Duties Act 1819.

What did the Newspapers and Stamp Duties Act do?

Number of publications that had to pay stamp duty extended, + amount to be paid increased substantially.

What was the effect of the Newspapers and Stamp Duties Act?

Effect of this measure was to reduce number of newspapers + pamphlets that could be published profitably.

What did the govt. acknowledge ?

Govt acknowledged how seriously they viewed radical threat to national stability: preamble to Acts declared 'every meeting for radical reform is an overt act of treasonable conspiracy against the king and his government’.

Were the 6 acts successful?

• 6 Acts had desired effect.

• Calm was soon restored, would not be another Peterloo, + crisis years of 1812-19 would not be repeated.

Who condemned the acts?

Acts were vigorously condemned by many contemporaries, but verdict of historians has been divided.

How have histroians been divided on the attacks?

While some have criticised Tory govts of time for apparently repressive policies, others noted ministers had few weapons at command to keep order in country.

What did RJ White think on the Acts?

• Historian R.J. White wrote extensively on 1815-19.

• Pointed out govt was attempting to maintain law + order with only few weapons at disposal.

What did RJ White say on peace keeping?

• He described how little had changed in way of peacekeeping forces since 1588.

• Was small official police force in London but outside London any peacekeeping force was voluntary + amateur, + depended on interest + public spirit of landed gentry.