Social Psych Exam 2

Persuasion

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behavior

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Type of Processing: Relies on automatic (system 1) thinking; focused on incidental cues

Preferred Audience: Unmotivated, non-analytical, and distracted

Outcome: temporary attitude change; spontaneous decision-making

Central Route of Persuasion

Type of Processing: Controlled, deliberate, and high-level thinking; USING FACTS

Preferred Audience: Motivated, involved, and analytical (have a high need for cognition/want to learn)

Outcome: Long-lasting attitude change 

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a smaller request to comply later with a large request

Door-in-the-face Technique

After someone turns down a large request, the requester counters with a smaller, more reasonable request

One-Sided Appeal

Mentions only “pros;” best if the audience already agrees with the message

Two-Sided Appeal

Addresses “cons” too; best if the audience already opposes the message or knows cons; communicator appears more honest

Primary Effect- Message Timing

Information presented first can influence the perception of later information

Recency Effect- Message Timing

Information that is presented last is sometimes more effective; in memory more recently, less likely to forget

Attitude Inoculation

Strengthen resistance to persuasive arguments by exposing them to weak attacks on their attitudes first; “persuasion vaccine”

Group

Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as a “us”

Collective Influence

Groups affect their members, and members affect their groups

Social Identity Theory

We categorize ourselves and others based on different social characteristics and identities; we identify with the group and can ascribe its characteristics to ourselves

Performance on Individual Tasks

The performance of others can enhance indivisual perfoence

Social Facilitation

The presence of others strengthens the dominant (prevalent, likely) response

Evaluation Apprehension

We are concerned about how others are evaluating us

Social Loafing

When people exert less effort toward a common goal (free riders benefit)

Conformity

A change in behavior or beliefs due to real or imagined group pressure

Social Norms

Rules or guidelines in a group or culture about what behaviors are considered proper or improper; can be explicit or implicit and can vary from group to group (e.g., gender, culture)

Normative Influence

People conform to be liked and accepted; we fear consequences of appearing deviant (E.g., trends, fashion, hairstyles, etc)

Informational Influence

People conform to be right and informed; occurs when the correct answer is unclear —> occurs when you think others know more than you (E.g., following others when in a new place, Rotten Tomatoes reviews, etc)

Ash’s Line Judgement Study

Purpose: To study conformity. Method: Participants judged line lengths while confederates gave wrong answers. Finding: Even when there was a clear answer, the participants are conforming because they feel the pressure to be liked and accepted

Sherif’s Autokenetic Effect Study

People form group norms when unsure. Individual estimates of a moving light converged in groups, showing informational social influence. Participants later stuck to the group norm even alone.

Situational factors that influence conformity

Group size, unanimity, public response, status/authority, prior commitment, and tight vs. loose cultures

Group Size

Conformity in Line Judgement Study peaked around 3–4 confederates

Unaminity

Adding one ally who disagreed in any study/instance drastically reduced conformity

Public Response

People conform more when they must respond publicly; less conformity when they can respond privately.

Status/Authority

People conform more when the group member has  higher status or authority

Prior Commitment

Once someone commits to an answer, they’re less likely to conform later.

Tight Cultures

People are more likely to conform because culture has strict social norms and low tolerance for deviance

Loose Cultures

People are less likely to conform due to flexible norms and higher tolerance for deviance

Three types of conformity

Acceptance, Compliance, and Obedience

Acceptance

Explicit; acting and believing in accord with social pressure; behavior and attitude match social norm; E.g., wearing a face mask because you believe it will stop the spread of COVID-19

Compliance

Explicit; publicly acting in accord with requests while privately disagreeing; behavior matches the request, attitude does not; E.g., wearing a face mask when recommended to avoid judgement from others

Obedience

Explicit; acting in accord with a direct order or command; behavior matches the command, attitude does not; wearing a face mask because it is required to enter a building

Mimicry

AKA “The Chameleon Effect;” we tend to mimic the actions and expressions of those around us; we mimic people we like, we like people who mimic us; in negotiations, mimicry builds rapport, trust, and liking, leading to better negotiation outcomes

Social Contagion

The spread of behaviors, emotions, or ideas through a group of people; E.g., yawning, laughter, clapping, panic, etc.

Mass Hysteria

Suggestibility to problems that spread throughout a large group of people; E.g., Salem Witch Trials

Conformity —> Positive Behavior Change

People conform to what others do. Goldstein et al. (2008) Water Conservation Study found hotel guests reused towels more when told most guests already did so, showing that social norms can encourage positive behavior change

Stanley Milgram’s Obediance Studies

Showed people often obey authority even against morals; obedience increased with high-status authority and experimenter proximity; shows social influence can have negative effects as well as positive

Resiting Conformity

Moral Convictions, Reactance, and Uniqueness

Moral Convictions

People with strong moral convictions are less likely to conform to the group privately and publicly

Reactance

The motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom

Uniqueness

People resist blending in to maintain individuality

Deinvididation

Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension

Are more (two heads) better than one?

• If the problem has a precise, factual answer: Yes.

  • Pulled knowledge

• If the problem has several possible good/bad answers: Not always.

  • Is arriving at the best solution the most important good for everyone?

  • What about looking good? Following group norms? Maintaining group harmony?

Groupthink

When group harmony is prioritized over critical thinking, usually when making a decision. Decision-making can be hampered when groups…

• Believe they are invulnerable or inherently moral

• Ignore contrary information and divergent opinions

• Suppress dissent in the interest of harmony

• Pressure members to agree (i.e., unanimity) or face consequences

Who is Most at Risk of Groupthink?

• Directive and charismatic leader (e.g., Stockton Rush- CEO of OceanGate)

• Highly cohesive and close-knit

• Homogeneous (members have similar backgrounds)

• Isolated from outside input

• High stakes or high-pressure

Group Polorization

Group discussions with like-minded members often enhance their initial positions

Prejudice

• Affect

• A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members

• Example: Negative feelings toward students from WVU

Stereotype

• Cognition

• A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people

• Example: Canadians are polite; women are bad drivers

Discrimination

• Behavior

• Unjustified negative behavior toward a group based on its members (solely based on group members)

• Example: Not hiring someone because of their religious beliefs

Problems With Stereotypes

• Stereotypes are sometimes accurate, and they can even be positively-valanced

  • Example: “Women are warm and nurturing.” “Asians are good at math.” “ Black people are athletic.”

• The problem with stereotypes arises when they are inaccurate and overgeneralized

Types of Prejudice

• Explicit Prejudice

• Implicit Prejudice

Explicit Prejudice

• Attitude we are aware of

• Measured with self-report scales

  • Verbal behavior

  • Self-perceptions

Implicit Prejudice

• Attitude or preference we have but are not aware of

• Measured with the implicit association test (IAT)

  • Nonverbal behavior

  • Behavioral confirmation

Racial Prejudice

Explicit racial prejudice and overt discrimination (“old-fashioned racism”) are declining, but subtle prejudice (“modern racism”) persists