Psych 305: Psychology of Being Human (Second Half of Course Content)

Dehumanization Hypothesis (DhH)

The theory that people harm out-groups because they perceive them as less than human (e.g., animal-like or object-like); in the course, this is treated as a dominant but debated explanation linking reduced humanness to reduced moral restraint

Harriet Over's Critique of the dehumanization hypothesis

The argument that out-groups are often seen as fully human but dangerous, immoral, and intentional; in the course, this reframes harm as arising from threatening human qualities rather than lack of humanity

Paul Bloom's Critique

The claim that dehumanization has been overextended to include nearly all negative judgments; in the course, this emphasizes the need to distinguish dehumanization from general prejudice ("if everything is dehumanization then nothing is")

Dehumanization as Cognitive Categorization

The idea that dehumanization is about how people are mentally categorized relative to the human category, not simply how negatively they are evaluated

Infrahumanization

The tendency to attribute fewer uniquely human (secondary) emotions (e.g., guilt, love) to out-groups; in the course, this explains subtle reductions in empathy

Haslam's Dual Model of Humanness

A framework distinguishing Human Nature (HN) and Human Uniqueness (HU); in the course, denial of HU leads to animalistic dehumanization, while denial of HN leads to mechanistic dehumanization

Human Nature (HN)

Traits seen as essential and core to humans (e.g., warmth, emotional depth); in the course, denying HN produces perceptions of others as cold or machine-like

Human Uniqueness (HU)

Traits that distinguish humans from animals (e.g., civility, rationality); in the course, denying HU produces perceptions of others as animal-like

Animalistic Dehumanization

Denial of human uniqueness traits, leading to perceptions of others as uncivilized, irrational, or primitive

Mechanistic Dehumanization

Denial of human nature traits, leading to perceptions of others as cold, rigid, and emotionless

Comparisons to Nonhuman Entities (Challenge 1, Over)

The idea that animal/object metaphors are not always dehumanizing and can be positive; in the course, this challenges using metaphors as automatic evidence of dehumanization

Human-Only Trait Attribution (Challenge 2, Over)

The observation that out-groups are often described with uniquely human traits (e.g., "traitor"); in the course, this suggests they are still seen as human agents

Association vs Representation (Challenge 3, Over)

The claim that implicit associations do not mean people literally believe others are nonhuman; in the course, this critiques the overinterpretation of implicit bias

Selective Mental State Attribution (Challenge 4, Over)

The idea that out-groups may be denied some mental states but attributed others (e.g., malice); in the course, this shows dehumanization is partial

Antisocial Human Traits (Challenge 5, Over)

The argument that out-groups may be seen as possessing uniquely human negative traits (e.g., cruelty); in the course, this challenges definitions of humanness

Persecution Due to Humanity (Challenge 6, Over)

The claim that harm often depends on recognizing human agency (e.g., punishment); in the course, this suggests humanity can increase violence

Humanness Not Required for Protection (Challenge 7, Over)

The observation that nonhumans (e.g., pets) are often protected; in the course, this shows lack of humanness does not predict harm

Prototype Model of Dehumanization (Giner-Sorolla)

The idea that dehumanization is partial and based on similarity to a human prototype rather than all-or-nothing categorization; in the course, this reframes dehumanization as graded

Five Dimensions of Humanness

Human category membership, mental complexity, creativity, capacity for suffering, and prosociality; in the course, individuals can be dehumanized along some dimensions but not others

Dehumanization as Default (1)

A passive failure to engage social cognition, leading to reduced mind attribution; in the course, this explains subtle, everyday dehumanization driven by apathy

Lesser Minds Problem (Epley & Waytz)

The tendency to see others' minds as less complex and intense than one's own; in the course, this is a core mechanism of passive dehumanization

Direct Access Bias

The tendency to see one's own emotions and thoughts as richer due to direct access to them; in the course, this leads to underestimating others' experiences

Causal Importance Bias

The tendency to explain one's own behaviour with complex mental states but others' behaviour with simpler causes; in the course, this creates asymmetry in perceived agency

Percieved Objectivity Bias

The tendency to believe we are more objective than others. Reflects naive realism and affects susceptibility to social influence

Naïve Realism

The belief that one's own perspective is objective while others are biased; in the course, this contributes to intergroup conflict and reduced perceived rationality

Stereotype Content Model (Harris & Fiske)

A framework that categorizes social groups based on perceived warmth (friendliness, trustworthiness) and competence (ability, status); in the course, groups low in both warmth and competence (e.g., stigmatized out-groups) elicit disgust and are most likely to be dehumanized, often showing reduced social cognition (e.g., lower mPFC activation), supporting dehumanization as default

Associative Process (2)

Human categorization based on learned associations between groups and nonhuman concepts; in the course, this explains metaphor-based and stereotype-based dehumanization

Constructed Associations

Associations actively formed by individuals through observation and inference; in the course, these can operate implicitly

Delivered Associations

Associations provided by external sources (e.g., media, propaganda); in the course, these shape perception passively

Mind Perception (Gray)

A framework proposing that humanness is based on two dimensions—experience (the capacity to feel emotions and sensations) and agency (the capacity for intention, planning, and control); in the course, dehumanization occurs when one or both of these dimensions are denied, leading to mechanistic (low experience) or animalistic (low agency) perceptions

Value x Threat Model (Hodson)

A model suggesting that dehumanization depends on how groups are evaluated in terms of perceived value (worth, usefulness) and threat (danger to the in-group); in the course, groups seen as low value and high threat are most likely to be strongly dehumanized, as they are both disliked and feared

Dehumanizing Metaphors

The use of language that compares groups to nonhuman entities (e.g., animals, vermin, machines); in the course, these metaphors do not necessarily reflect literal beliefs but function to shape perception, reduce moral concern, and justify harm by transferring negative qualities from the source domain to the target group

Conceptual Metaphor Theory

The idea that abstract concepts (target) are understood through concrete domains (source); in the course, metaphors shape how groups are evaluated

Metaphoric Transfer Strategy

The process by which understanding of a source domain transfers to a target; in the course, animal metaphors reduce perceived value

Alternate Source Strategy

The idea that the same target can be understood through different metaphors; in the course, this explains variability in perception

Functional Process (3)

Dehumanization is used to serve moral or instrumental goals; in this course, this explains why dehumanization occurs in specific contexts

Moral Exclusion (Opotow)

The process of placing groups outside the moral circle; in the course, this removes protections and justifies harm

Moral Disengagement (Bandura)

Cognitive mechanisms that justify harmful behaviour; in the course, dehumanization is one way to reduce moral restraint

Delegitimization (Bar-Tal)

Categorizing groups as fundamentally unacceptable or dangerous; in the course, this supports extreme exclusion

Instrumental Violence

Harm used as a means to an end; in the course, dehumanization predicts support for this type of violence

Moral Violence

Harm justified as morally right (e.g., punishment); in the course, dehumanization is less predictive here

Attribute-Based Dehumanization (Loughnan et al.)

The denial of human-defining traits (e.g., rationality, emotional depth, civility) to a group; in the course, this reflects perceiving others as lacking key dimensions of humanness, especially human nature or human uniqueness

Metaphor-Based Dehumanization (Loughnan et al.)

The perception of a group as similar to nonhuman entities (e.g., animals, machines); in the course, this operates through symbolic comparisons that transfer negative qualities to the target group

Reciprocity Model (Loughnan et al.)

The idea that attribute-based and metaphor-based dehumanization reinforce each other; in the course, denying human traits leads to nonhuman comparisons and vice versa, forming a mutually reinforcing cognitive system

Atran et al. (1999, 2002) - Guatemala Study

Examined how different cultural groups understand and interact with nature; in the course, it shows that environmental knowledge and reasoning vary significantly across cultural and ecological contexts

Itza' (Indigenous)

A group in Guatemala with extensive ecological knowledge and a reciprocal relationship with nature; in the course, they demonstrate sustainable practices and non-anthropocentric reasoning (high)

Ladinos

A Guatemalan group with more market-oriented and less ecologically integrated practices; in the course, they show weaker environmental knowledge and less sustainable interaction with nature (moderate)

Q'eqchi

A Guatemalan group influenced by external institutions and less integrated ecological knowledge; in the course, they demonstrate more anthropocentric and less sustainable environmental reasoning (low)

Declining Exposure to Nature

The reduction in direct interaction with natural environments due to urbanization and modern lifestyles; in the course, this leads to weaker ecological understanding and increased anthropocentrism

New Environmental Paradigm (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978)

A worldview emphasizing limits to growth, ecological balance, and the intrinsic value of nature; in the course, this contrasts with human-centered (anthropocentric) perspectives

The "Empty Nature" Concept (Kashima)

The perception of nature as a passive resource devoid of intrinsic value; in the course, this reflects anthropocentric thinking and supports exploitative human-nature relationships

Value-Belief-Norm Mode (Kashima)l

A framework explaining pro-environmental behavior as a chain from values → ecological beliefs → personal norms; in the course, individuals act sustainably when they value nature, believe it is threatened, and feel a moral obligation to respond

Cultural Theory of Risk (Kashima)

A theory proposing that perceptions of risk are shaped by social organization and cultural worldviews; in the course, different group structures lead to different interpretations of environmental and societal threats

Hierarchist (High Grid, High Group)

A worldview emphasizing structure, authority, and social order; in the course, hierarchists support environmental protection when it maintains stability but prioritize institutional control

Egalitarian (Low Grid, High Group)

A worldview emphasizing equality and collective responsibility; in the course, egalitarians are most concerned with environmental risks and support strong sustainability efforts

Individualist (Low Grid, Low Group)

A worldview emphasizing personal freedom and competition; in the course, individualists are less concerned with environmental risk and prioritize economic growth

Fatalist (High Grid, Low Group)

A worldview characterized by low control and resignation; in the course, fatalists perceive risks as unavoidable and are less likely to engage in environmental action

Creatureliness and Health Behaviour

The idea that reminders of humans' animal nature (e.g., bodily functions, disease) evoke disgust and avoidance; in the course, this shapes health decisions and attitudes toward the body

Interspecies Model of Prejudice (IMP)

A model proposing that prejudice toward human out-groups is linked to attitudes toward animals; in the course, dehumanization occurs by placing groups closer to animals in a human-animal hierarchy

Three Domains Of Human Activity (Kashima)

A framework describing how humans relate to nature through exploitation (resource use and consumption), contribution (actions that sustain or restore nature), and interaction (direct experience and engagement with nature); in the course, this defines human-nature relationships and sustainability

Folk Biology (Kashima)

Intuitive, everyday reasoning about living things and ecosystems; in the course, this shapes how people categorize humans, animals, and nature, often in non-scientific but systematic ways

Universal Cognitive Principles (Kashima)

Core ways humans across cultures think about the world (e.g., essentialism, vitalism, teleology); in the course, these underlie how people understand humanness, nature, and social groups

Essentialism (Kashima)

The belief that categories have an underlying, unchanging essence that defines them; in the course, this supports rigid group boundaries and contributes to dehumanization

Vitalism (Kashima)

The belief that living things possess a special life force beyond physical processes; in the course, this shapes early biological reasoning and distinctions between living and nonliving entities

Teleology (Kashima)

The tendency to explain natural phenomena in terms of purpose or function (e.g., believing things exist "for" something); in the course, this is a core feature of folk biology and universal cognitive principles, leading people to see nature as intentionally designed, which can reinforce anthropocentric and purpose-based understandings of the world

Tripartite Model Of Environmental Concern (Kashima)

A framework distinguishing egoistic (self-focused), altruistic (human-focused), and biospheric (nature-focused) concerns; in the course, these motivations predict environmental attitudes and behavior

Animism

The belief that nonhuman entities (e.g., animals, plants, objects) possess minds or spirits; in the course, this reflects a more inclusive attribution of agency and experience beyond humans

Descola's Typology Of Human-Nature Ontologies (Kashima)

A framework identifying different ways cultures conceptualize relationships between humans and nature (e.g., naturalism, animism, totemism, analogism); marked on physicality and interiority as distinct or continuous

Causes Of The Uncanny Valley (MacDorman & Ishiguro, 2006)

The idea that highly human-like entities become unsettling due to small deviations from human norms, possibly triggering evolved responses such as mortality awareness or violations of expected human behavior; in the course, this reflects sensitivity to humanness boundaries

Belief In Human Essentialism (BHES)

The belief that humans possess a unique, inherent essence that distinguishes them from other entities; in the course, this reinforces strong human-nonhuman boundaries and resistance to human-like machines

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Computer systems designed to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence (e.g., learning, reasoning, language); in the course, AI challenges the boundaries of humanness by replicating human-like cognition and behavior

Debate Around AI

The question of whether AI can truly be considered human-like or possess a "mind"; in the course, this debate centers on whether humanness depends on behavior, internal processes, or an essential human quality

Major Concerns with AI

Issues such as loss of human uniqueness, ethical treatment of AI, job displacement, bias, and over-reliance on machines; in the course, these concerns reflect anxiety about shifting human boundaries and identity

Social Identity And The AI Effect

The tendency to redefine humanness when AI performs human-like tasks; in the course, people shift the boundary of what counts as "human" to maintain a distinct social identity

Mind Perception And AI

The attribution of experience (feelings) and agency (intentions) to AI systems; in the course, the perceived humanness of AI depends on how much mind is attributed

Gendered / Sexed AI

The design of AI systems with gendered voices, names, or traits; in the course, this reflects and reinforces social stereotypes and expectations about gender

Dehumanization of AI Users

The tendency to view people who rely heavily on AI as less competent, less authentic, or less human; in the course, this reflects boundary maintenance between "human" and "machine-assisted" individuals

Why Androids Are Scientifically Valuable

Androids allow precise control over human-like appearance and behaviour in experiments; in the course, they serve as tools to study social cognition, humanness perception, and the boundaries between human and nonhuman entities

Fromm's Basic Assumptions

The idea that human personality can only be understood ina historical and social context, and that humans are uniquely separated from nature with the capacity for reason but lacking strong instincts; in the course, this creates a tension between freedom and insecurity

The Human Dilemma (Fromm)

The condition of humans having advanced cognitive abilities (e.g., self-awareness, reason) but lacking instinctual guidance; in the course, this creates anxiety and the need to find meaning and structure

Existential Dichotomies (Fromm)

Fundamental, unavoidable tensions in human existence (e.g., life vs. death, individuality vs. connection); in the course, these cannot be resolved but must be managed psychologically

Fromm's "Modern Man"

The idea that modern individuals are alienated, passive, and object-like due to industrial society; in the course, modern humans lose individuality, meaning, and authentic connection

Idolatry & The Failed Enlightenment (Fromm)

The argument that humans replaced religious idolatry with worship of objects, institutions, and technology; in the course, this reflects a failure to achieve true human freedom and fulfillment

Incestuous Symbiosis (Fromm)

A pathological dependence on a person or entity (e.g., mother figure, institution) for security; in the course, this undermines autonomy, individuality, and authentic relationships

Malignant Narcissism (Fromm)

An extreme self-centered orientation where one overvalues oneself and devalues others; in the course, this distorts reality and contributes to dehumanization

Consumer Society & Psychological Consequences (Fromm)

The idea that modern capitalism turns individuals into passive consumers and commodities; in the course, this leads to anxiety, depression, loss of identity, and alienation

Existential Needs (Beyond Basic Needs)

Human needs for meaning and connection, including relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, identity, and a frame of orientation; in the course, fulfillment requires more than material satisfaction

Anthropomorphism & Religion

The tendency to attribute human-like minds to gods or supernatural agents; in the course, this reflects cognitive biases toward agency detection and social reasoning

Stages in the Development of Western Man (Fromm)

Fromm's outline of historical shifts from idolatry to humanistic religion, prophetic messianism, christianity, medival synthesis to the renaissance and modernity.

Stage 1 - From Idolatry to Humanistic Religion (1500 B.C. - Early Christianity)

The transition from submission to external powers (nature, idols, human-made objects) to a human-centered worldview emphasizing reason, love, and self-awareness; in the course, idolatry involves worshipping one's own creations, while humanistic religion (e.g., Mosaic religion, Taoism, Buddhism, Greek philosophy) promotes unity with the world through full human development, marking the first major step toward freedom and maturity

Stage 2 - Prophetic Messianism

The emergence of the idea that history is moving toward redemption and reconciliation; in the course, the biblical story of Paradise represents original unity with nature, followed by the loss of innocence through self-awareness and the beginning of freedom, with the goal being a higher form of unity based on reason and love rather than regression

Stage 3 - Christianity

The transmission of messianic ideas into European thought, with a key shift from historical transformation to transhistorical salvation (i.e., fulfillment beyond this world); in the course, Christianity maintains the idea of collective human redemption but internalizes it, while still producing recurring movements pushing for liberation and social change

Stage 4 - Medieval Synthesis

The integration of Jewish prophetic-messianic ideas with Greek philosophy and science into a unified religious and social system; in the course, this synthesis provides stability, meaning, and order for approximately 1,000 years, serving as the foundation from which modern society eventually develops

Stage 5 - The Renaissance and Modernity

A return to the individual, nature, and scientific inquiry, leading to the rise of humanism and belief in progress; in the course, the messianic vision becomes secularized into utopian thought (e.g., More, Campanella), with the Enlightenment emphasizing human reason and freedom, and the 19th century expressing confidence in human mastery over nature, material progress, and the possibility of fully realizing human potential

The Collapse of Hope (Fromm)

The idea that the Enlightenment promise of freedom, reason, and human fulfillment has failed in modern society; in the course, this results in disillusionment, anxiety, and loss of meaning

Atomization and Anomie (Fromm)

The breakdown of social bonds and shared norms, leaving individuals isolated and disconnected; in the course, this contributes to loneliness and weakened community

Alienation as Modern Idolatry (Fromm)

The idea that people worship the systems and objects they create (e.g., money, technology) instead of human values; in the course, this reflects a reversal where humans are controlled by their own creations

Atomic Weapons as Ultimate Symbol of Alienation (Fromm)

The idea that nuclear weapons represent humanity's capacity to destroy itself through its own creations; in the course, this symbolizes the extreme danger of technological advancement detached from human values

Modern Forms of Idolatry (Fromm)

The elevation of institutions, technology, wealth, and the market above human well-being; in the course, this replaces traditional religion with materialistic and systemic "worship"

Political Alienation (Fromm)

The feeling of powerlessness and disconnection from political systems; in the course, individuals no longer feel agency or participation in governance