IB BIOLOGY TOPIC 2

carbon compounds

carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid, proteins

Metabolism

the chemical processes (enzyme catalyzed) that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.

Anabolism

the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones, including ther formation of macrolmes from monomers by condensation reactions

Catabolism

the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules, including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers.

Insulin

protein hormone that facilitates the movement of glucose form the bloodstream to the interior of cells

organic chemistry

the study of all chemicals containing carbon

Subcomponent of carbohydrates

monosaccharides

subcomponent of lipids

Glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate groups

Subcomponent of proteins

amino acids

subcomponent of nucleic acids

nucleotides

carbohydrate subcategories

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Lipid subcategories

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Protein examples

enzymes, antibodies, peptide hormones

Monosaccharide examples

glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose

Disaccharide examples

sucrose, lactose, maltose

polysaccharide examples

starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

triglyceride examples

fats in adipose tissue

phospholipid example

bilayer of cell membrane

Steroid examples

cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen

nucleic acid examples

DNA, RNA, ATP

Enzymes

molecule that increases the likelihood that a collision will lead to a useful reaction

hydrogen bond

Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

aqueous solution

a solution in which water is the solvent

polar covalent bond

bond between the oxygen atom and the two hydrogen atoms of a signle water molecule; A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally

Electrons

Negatively charged particles

covalent bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share electrons

Dipolarity

Polarity only on two poles

e.g. water molecules

ephermal

short-lived

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

Adhesion

An attraction between molecules of different substances

high specific heat

A property of water. Water can absorb lots of heat before changing temperature

Xylem

vascular tissue that carries water upward from the roots to every part of a plant

Pholem

type of vascular tissue that carries nutrients, food , and dissolved sugars from place to place inside the cell

Hydrophilic

water loving

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms

Methane

non polar substance example

monosachharides

monomer of carbohydrates; linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides

Types of fatty acids

saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated

Unsaturated Isomers

cis and trans

Triglycerides

formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol

dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction)

examples of polysaccharides (all made of glucose)

starch, glycogen, cellulose

Cellulose

major component of cell walls, helps give rigidity support to roots, stems, and leaves

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose; usually located in roots

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose in animals; usually located in liver and muscle tissue

saturated fatty acid

carbons are saturated with hydrogen atoms; generally solid at room temperature; no double bonds

monounstaturated fatty acids

one double bond exists in the chain of a hydrocarbon; cause one "kink" or bend in the molecule

polyunsaturated fatty acid

two or more double bonds in the carbon chain; usually liquid at room temperature

Hydrogenation

The process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

cis fatty acids

Two covalent single C-C bonds angle in the same direction adjacent to the C=C double bond

trans fatty acids

fatty acids with hydrogens on opposite sides of the double bond

adipose tissue

Tissue that stores fat (triglyceride lipids).

BMI (body mass index)

a measure of body weight relative to height

amino acids

a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group; linked together by condensation to form polypeptides.

Gene

specific region of DNA that codes for a particular protein (polypeptide)

Ribosomes

site of protein synthesis; amino acid linkage

Rubisco

The most abundant protein on earth; enzyme that catalyzes the first reaction of the carbon-fixing reactions of photosynthesis

Insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues; results in decrease of blood sugar levels and an increase of sugar inside body cells

immonuglobulins

another name for an antibody that recognizes an antigen(s) as part of immune response

rhodopsin

a pigment found in the retina of the eye that is particularly useful in low light conditions

Collagen

main protein component of connective tissue, which is abundant in skin, tendons, and ligaments.

spider silk

the fibrous protein spun by spiders for making webs, drop lines, nest building, and other uses; has incredible tensile strength.

primary structure of protein

the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain; determines the three dimensional shape

secondary structure of protein

repetitive shapes of either an alpha helix (spiral staircase) or beta pleated sheet (corrugated folds); e.g. spider silk

tertiary structure of protein

protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the secondary structure fold again to from a larger globular 3D structure; e.g. enzymes

quaternary structure of a protein

A number of polypeptide chains linked together, and sometimes associated with non-protein groups to form a protein; e.g. hemoglobin

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Proteome

the unique and entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell or group of cells

Denature

A change in the shape of a protein (such as an enzyme) that can be caused by changes in temperature or pH (among other things).

peptide bond

The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid

Enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts; speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells by lowering the activation energy; act on specific substrates

pH scale

measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14; each number on the scale presents an increase/decrease by a power of 10

nucleic acids

examples DNA, RNA, ATP;

nucleotides

monomers of nucleic acids; contains phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose/ribose), a nitrogenous base (A,T,G,C,U); DNA and RNA involved in genetic aspects of the cell; ATP involved in energy transfer

RNA

single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose

DNA

A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.

antiparallel

The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.

DNA replication

The process in which DNA makes a duplicate copy of itself; occurs in nucleus

Helicase

An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.

DNA polymerase

Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule

free-floating nucleotides

nucleotides that are present in the nucleus and are used during DNA replication and mRNA synthesis

Nucleoplasm

Fluid inside the nucleus

semiconservative replication

each new DNA molecule consists of one new strand and one old strand

protein synthesis

the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA; transcription (in the nucleus) and translation (on the ribosome)

RNA polymerase

enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription using a DNA strand as a template

Codon (triplet)

three sequential bases of RNA that code for an amino acid

mRNA (messenger RNA)

a single-stranded RNA molecule that encodes the information to make a protein; complementary copy of a DNA gene and has enough genetic information to code for a single polypeptide

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

type of RNA that makes up the major part of ribosomes

tRNA (transfer RNA)

type of RNA molecule that transfers one of the 20 amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis (polypeptide synthesis)

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

a way DNA replication can be carried out artificially; A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.

Thermus aquaticus (Taq)

a bacterium that contains an enzyme that is not denatured at high temperatures (Taq polymerase)

cell respiration

the process in cells in which oxygen is used to release stored energy by breaking down sugar molecules (general)

cell respiration equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 >>>> 6H20 + 6CO2 +ATP

Glycolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose (6 C) is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid (3C); occurs in cytoplasm of ALL cells

anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen; small ATP yield

alcoholic fermentation

A process used by yeast cells and some bacteria to produce carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol (2C): bakers and brewers use

lactic acid fermentation

The conversion of pyruvate (3C) to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide; used in human muscles

Aerobic cell respiration

respiration requiring oxygen, involving the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water; occurs in the mitochondria

Production of human insulin in bacteria

Example of the universality of the genetic code allowing gene transfer between species