### EVENTS LEADING TO THE WRITING OF THE CONSTITUTION - **Struggle Between the Colonies and Britain**: Tensions arose as Britain imposed heavy taxes and restrictive laws, while the colonists felt increasingly marginalized. - **Relationship between Colonists and King/British Government**: The relationship soured over issues like taxation, representation, and control, especially after the French and Indian War. - **Actions by King/British Government Towards Colonists**: Imposed taxes (e.g., Stamp Act, Tea Act), the Intolerable Acts, and quartering British troops. - **Actions by Colonists Towards King/British Government**: Protested through boycotts, organized the Boston Tea Party, and formed militias. - **King George III**: The monarch of Britain during the American Revolution, seen as a tyrant by the colonists. - **Taxation without Representation**: A rallying cry for the colonists, arguing that they shouldn't be taxed by a government in which they had no political representation. - **First Continental Congress**: A 1774 meeting where delegates from 12 colonies met to respond to British policies, leading to boycotts and military preparations. - **Declaration of Independence**: Written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, it declared the colonies’ separation from Britain. It was adopted in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. - **Common Sense by Thomas Paine**: A 1776 pamphlet that argued for independence from Britain, greatly influencing public opinion. - **Second Continental Congress**: Met in 1775 to manage the war effort and eventually declare independence. - **US Constitution**: The framework for the U.S. government, establishing three branches and the system of federalism. - **Bill of Rights**: The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, protecting individual freedoms. - **Articles of Confederation**: The first constitution of the U.S., which created a weak central government. - **How Constitution is Different from Articles**: The Constitution established a stronger federal government, with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. - **Constitutional Convention**: Held in 1787 to draft the Constitution. --- ### STRUCTURE OF THE CONSTITUTION - **Preamble to the Constitution**: The introduction that outlines the purpose of the Constitution. - **Seven Articles of the Constitution**: 1. **Legislative Branch**: Establishes Congress, its powers, and the legislative process. 2. **Executive Branch**: Defines the presidency, powers, duties, and impeachment. 3. **Judicial Branch**: Establishes the Supreme Court and lower courts, and their powers. 4. **States' Relations**: Addresses the rights and powers of states and their interaction with the federal government. 5. **Amendment Process**: Explains how the Constitution can be amended. 6. **Supremacy Clause**: Declares the Constitution the "supreme law of the land." 7. **Ratification**: Details the process for ratifying the Constitution. - **27 Amendments**: The changes and additions made to the Constitution over time, including the Bill of Rights. --- ### SIX BASIC PRINCIPLES - **Limited Government**: The government has only the powers that the Constitution gives it. - **Rule of Law**: Everyone, including government officials, must follow the law. - **Federalism**: The division of power between the national and state governments. - **Supremacy Clause**: The Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws. - **Popular Sovereignty**: The people are the ultimate source of governmental authority. - **Separation of Powers**: The division of government into three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial. - **Judicial Review**: The power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional (established in *Marbury v. Madison*). - **Checks and Balances**: Each branch of government can limit the powers of the other branches. --- ### FORMALLY AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION - **Proposing Amendments**: Can be done by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress or a national convention. - **Ratifying Amendments**: Requires approval by three-fourths of the state legislatures or conventions. --- ### INFORMALLY AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION - **Laws Passed by Congress**: Congress can pass laws that shape the way the Constitution is applied. - **Actions by the President**: Executive actions and orders can effectively amend how the government functions. - **Decisions of the Supreme Court**: Court rulings interpret the Constitution and can lead to significant changes in law. - **Influence of Political Parties**: Parties affect how the Constitution is applied, even though they aren’t mentioned in the Constitution. - **Customs/Traditions**: Long-standing practices (e.g., the President serving only two terms before the 22nd Amendment) can informally amend the Constitution. ---

What is the primary function of the cell membrane?

To protect the cell and regulate what enters and leaves.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ is the powerhouse of the cell.

Mitochondria

Define cytoplasm.

The jelly-like substance within the cell that contains organelles.

Question: What is the role of ribosomes in a cell?

To synthesize proteins.

Vocabulary: Nucleus

The organelle that contains the cell's genetic material.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ is responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells.

Chloroplast

What structure controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell?

Cell membrane.

Definition: Golgi apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ provides structural support and protection for plant cells.

Cell wall

Question: What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.

What are the small, membrane-bound structures that perform specific functions within a cell?

Organelles.

Vocabulary: Endoplasmic reticulum

An organelle involved in the synthesis of proteins and lipids.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ in the cell is responsible for breaking down waste materials and cellular debris.

Lysosome

Question: How do plant cells differ from animal cells in terms of structure?

Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, while animal cells do not.

Definition: Plasma membrane

A semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cell.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ helps in the production of ATP during cellular respiration.

Mitochondria

What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

To maintain the cell's shape and provide support.

Vocabulary: Vacuole

A storage organelle found in plant cells.

Question: What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?

Rough ER and Smooth ER.

Fill in the Blank: __________ are structures that transport materials within the cell.

Vesicles

What is the role of chlorophyll in plant cells?

To absorb light energy for photosynthesis.

Definition: Phospholipid bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up the cell membrane.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ is involved in detoxifying harmful substances in the cell.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Question: What is the function of the nucleolus?

To produce ribosomal RNA.

Vocabulary: Chromosome

A structure made of DNA that contains genetic information.

Fill in the Blank: __________ is the process by which cells divide and replicate.

Cell division

What is the function of the cell wall?

To provide rigidity and support to the plant cell.

Definition: Centriole

A structure involved in cell division, helping to organize the spindle fibers.

Fill in the Blank: __________ transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient.

Active

Question: What organelle is responsible for lipid synthesis?

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Vocabulary: ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

The energy currency of the cell.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ is involved in modifying and packaging proteins for secretion.

Golgi apparatus

What are the main components of the cell theory?

All living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Definition: Cell cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and replication.

Fill in the Blank: __________ is the phase of the cell cycle where DNA is replicated.

S phase

Question: What is apoptosis?

The process of programmed cell death.

Vocabulary: Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Fill in the Blank: The __________ of the cell is involved in synthesizing proteins to be exported.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum