AP Pysch UNIT 2.1 - 2.2

2.2 as of now

Schema

Your definition of something

A mental model or frame work that allows people to interpret information and organize stimuli, mental file folder.

Assimilation

When new information matches with your expectation/schema

Accommodation

When new information challenges your schema or expectation: I drop a pencil expecting the nice girl to pick it up for me but she just stares at it

Availability Heuristic

The judgement of something because it comes to the mind faster

Representative Heuristic

Judgement based on how it matches one’s prototype of something. Based on the idea of

Prototype

Your ideal or classic example (something)

Executive Functions

How your brain prioritizes or plans things (deciding what to do first, deadlines, and focus)

REGULATED by PREFRONTAL Cortex

Priming

Exposure to stimulus influences howl you respond without realizing it.

Ex. You see kind posters making you more inclined to be kind / I say “rabbit” so you are more likely to see a rabbit in the photo then something else

Convergent Thinking

Problem solving that focuses on finding the single best solution. When you are unaware of other functions and believe something can only be used one way / fixed. (MCQ has one right answer)

This is linked to functional fixedness (the action) and fixation (category). Convergent thinking is the (type of thinking)

big to small

Divergent Thinking

When you figure out something new and overcome a prior belief of only one right answer/possibility you have diverged! small to big

MORE CREATIVE IDEAS → leads to more solutions unlike convergent which is more logical

Metacognition

Process of identifying how you think and learn best 

Algorithm

(Formal Problem Solving Strategy) following a:

• step by step procedure

• time consuming

• always accurate

• SYSTEMATIC

EX. Finding a word in book and you read every single line in order

Heuristic

(Informal Problem Solving Strategy)

following a:

• intuition, random way of finding something

• quick

• error-prone 

• TRIAL BASED

EX. You look for the labubu blind box based on where you expect the box to be

Trial and Error Learning

Successive attempts to respond to a situation in different ways, RANDOM, until one is successful.

• Testing out possibilities RANDOMLY NOT SYSTEMATICALLY

Insight Learning

When you have an AH-HA moment of a solution to a problem after reflection and GIVING UP.

EX. After test is over you realize your answer is wrong

Processed in Right Temporal Lobe

Difference between Trial and Error / Heuristic Thinking

T+E: Unsystematic process of testing out possible solutions until right one is met (figuring out how to fix phone so you turn off wifi or bluetooth, etc)

Heuristic: rule of thumb for solving things based on past experiences or expectations (looking for keys you look to where you usually put them)

Barriers to Effective Problem-Solving

• Availability Heuristic based on fear

• Biases or Errors in Thinking

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Because you have already put in so much time/sacrificed efforts you will continue doing something

Gambler’s fallacy

Belief that something will happen because with fixed probability become higher or lower as the process is repeated

• belief that past events FALSLY affect probability of something in the future

Confirmation Bias

Due to believing something, you choose to ONLY find evidence that supports your belief and ACTIVELY IGNORE evidence that goes against your belief

belief perseverance

even after you have evidence that your belief is wrong, you choose to continue believing it

“tendency to cling to one’s belief” not listening to facts, and actively reject information that undermines your views

Fixation

Inability to solve something or see the situation from a new perspective

Mental Set (what are the steps?)

Using the same solution even after it is no longer effective 

Steps for mental set:

1) Have solution that worked

2) Solution stops working

3) Continue same approach

Functional Fixedness

Only seeing one possibility for an object

EX. A paper can only be used as something to write on not a fan to use on a hot day

Framing

Influenced by the way information is presented, TWO DIFFERENT WAYS OF SAYING THE SAME THING to make it sound better or worse

EX. This chocolate bar contains 80% of sugar

VS.

This chocolate bar has 20% less sugar than other chocolate bars

Nudging

type of framing: putting choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

EX. labeling healthy foods in a way to make them more appealing

or 

putting tip jar right in front of customer 

Self-Serving Bias

Interpret something by accepting credit for one’s success but blaming others/external factors for failure

• preserving self esteem

Hindsight Bias

After you see the solution/outcome to something, “I knew it all along” phenomenon

Overconfidence

Overestimate one’s abilities or judgement

Algorithm vs Trial and Error Learning

Systematic way of going through every possible solution until finding the right solution vs. Random and unsystematic way of trying different solutions until the right one is found