Harder flashcards to remember

What is the hippocampus's role in memory?

It is crucial for long-term memory storage.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in memory?

It is associated with short-term memory processing.

Outline Smith and Jonides’ (1997) task

• 2 stimuli presented, followed by probe

• Decide if probe in (i) same location (spatial), or (ii) same form (visual) as one of the presented stimuli

 

• Stimuli identical in both tasks

• But different brain activity (PET)

  1. Right hemisphere = spatial task

  2. Left hemisphere = visual task

-> Suggests there are two separate systems processing visual and spatial inputs

What is the suffix effect?

Recalling the final items of a spoken list is impaired by appending a nominally irrelevant speech sound (the "suffix") at the end

What is articulatory suppression?

A technique in cognitive psychology used to disrupt verbal memory by preventing a person from silently rehearsing information

What are the 3 types of prospective memory?

1. Time-based

2. Event-based

3. Implementation intentions

What are the stages of prospective memory?

Iguanas Race Cars In Indiana

1. Intention formation - intention linked to a specific cue

2. Retention interval - environmental monitoring of task-relevant cues

3. Cue detection and intention retrieval

4. Intention recall - retrieve intention from retrospective memory

5. Intention execution - fairly automatic and undemanding

What is priming?

Facilitated processing of repeated stimuli

What brain regions are primarily involved in non-declarative memory?

Basal ganglia and neocortex.

What brain structures are affected for individuals with anterograde amnesia?

• Damage to hippocampus: poor episodic memory

• Damage to para-hippocampal cortex: poor semantic memory

• Damage to both regions: poor episodic/semantic memory

What are 3 different types of semantic memory?

1. Superordinate, e.g. items of furniture

2. Basic-level, e.g. chair

3. Subordinate, e.g. rocking chair

What brain regions are primarily involved in declarative memory?

Medial temporal lobe and diencephalon.

What are implementation intentions? (prospective memory)

Action plans that specify where, when, and how a goal will be achieved.

What is the DRM paradigm?

A method to study false memories where participants recall words semantically associated with a list but not included.

• You make connections between list words and the associated word, leading to memory error

What is the consolidation in relation to anterograde amnesia?

• Physiological process in the hippocampus leads to formation of long-lasting memories

• Consolidated memories stored elsewhere, protecting then from effects of hippocampal damage

Name and explain 3 common issues within face recognition

- Unconscious transference: misidentify a familiar (but innocent) face as being person responsible

• Other-race effect: recognition for same-race faces generally more accurate than other-race face

• Own-age bias: more accurate when culprit is similar age to witness

What is associative agnosia?

• Able to group (combine) features

• Cannot associate features with stored knowledge of object identity

• Damage to temporal and occipital lobes in both left and right hemisphere

What are monocular (pictorial) cues?

Cues such as interposition, linear perspective, and texture gradients that help perceive depth.

What are the 2 motion cues associated with depth perception?

• Motion parallax: nearby objects move more rapidly than far away objects

• Optic flow: images get larger as we approach them

What is prosopagnosia (face blindness)?

• Poor face recognition but good object recognition

• Face and object recognition involve different brain areas

• Fusiform gyrus

What is the recognition-by-components (RBC) theory? What are the 2 processes at play?

The theory suggests that we recognise objects by breaking them down into a small set of basic 3D shapes called geons (geometric ions) and then identifying how those geons are arranged relative to one another.

• Object recognition is a joint effort between 2 processes:

1. One responsible for features and components

2. Another for overall shape and global patterns

What are oculomotor cues?

• Convergence: eyes turn inwards when we focus on close objects

• Accommodation: shape of lenses in the eye changes shape depending on an objects distance

What is good continuation in Gestalt principles?

We prefer to organise objects where contours continue smoothly.

What are binocular cues in depth perception?

Each eye has a different view of the world(stereopsis), leading to binocular disparity.

Difference = binocular disparity

What is agnosia?

A failure to recognise objects, often caused by brain damage.

→ can be apperceptive or associative

What is apperceptive agnosia?

• Ability to perceive features, e.g. colour

• Unable to group features to name object

• Damage to posterior regions of the right hemisphere

What are illusory conjunctions?

Illusory conjunctions occur when a person incorrectly combines features from different objects into a single object during perception.

Example

If you briefly see:

• a red X

• a green O

You might later report seeing:

• a green X

• a red O

What is the difference between the exogenous and endogenous attention networks? (Posner,1980)

EXOGENOUS

• Bottom-up - driven by environmental factors

• Stimulus-driven

• Automatically shift attention

• Peripheral cues

ENDOGENOUS

• Top-down

• Happens within our brain

• Goal-directed

• Controlled by expectations

• Central cues

What are the two types of neglect?

• Object-centred (allocentric): lack of awareness of one side of objects.

• Subject-centred (egocentric): lack of awareness of an entire side of the visual field.

What is the Cocktail Party Problem? (Cherry, 1953)

It refers to the challenge of focusing on one conversation while ignoring others, often using physical differences to aid in selection.

• Using physical differences (e.g. gender, location)

• Extract little information from unattended stimulus                                                                                  

• Exogenous (stimulus-driven), as hear salient information in unattended stimulus

What is inattentional bias?

Inattentional bias is the failure to notice an unexpected, fully visible item when attention is diverted to other aspects of a display.

What are the two major theoretical approaches to reading aloud?

The dual-route model and the connectionist triangle model

What is the difference between surface, phonological and deep dyslexia?

Surface: lexical route impaired

Phonological: letter-to-sound conversion impaired

Deep: phonological and semantic impairment

What is the interactive activation model of visual word processing? What are the 3 levels of recognition?

• Recognition units at 3 levels:

1. Feature level

2. Letter level

3. Word level

• Involves parallel processing

• Bottom-up and top-down processes interact

What is categorical perception?

The perception of phonemes as the same despite physical differences

What is semantic priming?

A phenomenon where a target word is recognised faster if preceded by a semantically related word.

What is phonological priming?

Words processed faster when prime (sound-based cue) is phonologically identical

What does the connectionist triangle model suggest? (Plaut et al, 1996)

• Based on highly interactive system between orthography (spelling), phonology (sound) and semantics (meaning)

1. Direct route between spelling and sound

2. Indirect route via word meaning

What is the word superiority effect?

A target letter is more readily detected in a letter string when it forms a word rather than a non-word.

What does the dual-route model propose? (Coltheart et al, 2001)

• It proposes two routes between printed word and speech: grapheme-phoneme conversion and lexicon/semantic knowledge.

• Activation at one level cascades onto the next

What is the phonemic restoration effect?

Listeners are unaware that a phoneme has been removed and replaced by a non-speech sound.

What are angloscentricites?

When the relationship between orthography and phonology is inconsistent

Outline 3 research methods for studying reading

1. Naming task: say printed word out loud as rapidly as possible

2. Lexical decision task: decide rapidly whether string of letters forms a word

3. Prime words task: does a word presented before a target word affect processing of the target?

What is egocentric heuristic?

Interpretations based on our own knowledge, rather than that shared with speaker

What is pragmatics in language comprehension?

The study of intended meaning, including figurative language such as metaphor, irony and idiom

What is the Constraint-based model?

A one-stage, parallel processing model that uses all sources of information to parse sentences.

• constrains the number of possible interpretations

• competing syntactic analyses of a sentence activated at the same time

• structure receiving most support from constraints is highly activated

• frequency and probability based on past experiences is important

→ our brains understand sentences by immediately analysing all possible meanings at once

What are the 2 stages of the prediction model?

1. Latent semantic analysis: represents the meanings of words based on relations with other words

2. Construction-integration: use information from first stage to construct interpretation

What are the two stages of forming a causal inference?

1. Bonding: automatic activation of words from preceding sentence

2. Resolution: ensures interpretation is consistent with contextual information

What is the unrestricted race model and its 3 assumptions?

Combines aspects of the Garden Path and Constraint-Based models.

• Following 3 assumptions:

1. All sources of information used to identify syntactic structure of a sentence

2. All other structures are ignored, unless favoured structure disconfirmed by subsequent information

3. If chosen structure discarded, reanalysis undertaken before another structure chosen

What does parsing refer to in language comprehension?

Analysing the syntactic/grammatical structure of sentences

What does the cognitive neuroscience N400 effect indicate?

→ measuring neurons on the outside of the skull

→ a negative peak 400 ms after word onset

Reflects a mismatch between predicted and actual meaning, reflecting fast access to word meaning and world knowledge.

What is the Garden Path Model?

• A two-stage, serial processing model that assumes one syntactical structure is considered initially without semantics.

• Simplest syntactical structure is chosen using minimal attachment and late closure.

What are the two differing accounts for understanding metaphor?

Standard pragmatic model and prediction model

What is the standard pragmatic model?

• Compute the literal meaning first.

• Check whether the literal meaning makes sense in context.

• If it doesn't, search for a non-literal meaning

What does the WEAVER++ model describe?

It describes word-form encoding by activation verification, with processing occurring in a serial fashion.

• There are 3 levels: highest, second and lowest

• Speech production proceeds from meaning (lexical selection/lemma) to sound (morphemes/phonemes

→ each processing stage occurs in seriation

What is a spoonerism?

A speech error where the initial letters of two words are switched, e.g., 'shake a tower' instead of 'take a shower'.

What is Jargon aphasia?

• Speech grammatically correct but have difficulties accessing correct words

• Substitute one word for another

• Produce neologisms

• Problems at phonological level

What is a word exchange error?

A type of speech error where words are swapped, indicating that speech planning extends over the entire clause.

e.g. ‘my room seems empty without my chair’ vs ‘my chair seems empty without my room’

What does under specification refer to in speech?

The use of simplified expressions like '…or something' or '…and things like that'.

What four factors are included to make common ground achievable in speech?

1. Syntactic priming

2. Gesture

3. Prosodic cues

4. Discourse markers

What is the spreading-activation theory of speech production?

A theory suggesting that processing occurs in parallel at different levels (semantic, lexical, phonological).

• Categorical rules: impose constraints on items/categories that are acceptable at each level

• Insertion rules: select items to be spoken, most highly activated nodes selected

→ processing occurs in parallel at different levels

What are the three main levels in the WEAVER++ model?

1. Lexical concepts

2. Lemmas (abstract words)

3. Word forms (morphemes/phonemes).

Provide four example errors of spelling

• Substitutions: different phoneme e.g colore → conore (colour)

• Transpositions: flip letters e.g. denaro → derano (money)

• Omissions: remove letter e.g. nostro → nosro (ours)

• Addition: add letter e.g. fritto → frritto (fried)

What are the two major theories of speech production?

1. Spreading-activation theory (Dell, 1986)

2. WEAVER ++ model (Levelt et al, 1999)

What are discourse markers in speech?

Words/phrases that aren’t directly relevant to the speaker’s message, e.g. um…

What is morpheme exchange in speech errors?

When inflections or suffixes are attached to the wrong words, e.g., 'he trunked two packs'.

What is aphasia?

Impaired ability to name everyday objects

Name 6 speech errors

Wild Snakes Slide Silently Most Nights

Word exchange

Spoonerism

Sound exchange

Semantic substitution

Morpheme exchange

Number agreement

Outline the process of speech production according to the WEAVER ++ model

Calm Leaders Manage Problems Patiently Always

Conceptual preparation

Lexical selection

Morphological encoding

Phonological encoding

Phonetic encoding

Articulation

What is preformulation in speech production?

The production of phrases used before, such as 'a piece of cake' or 'under the weather'.

What is syntactic priming?

When a speaker copies words or phrases heard previously, influenced by the other person speaking.

→ tends to happen implicitly

What are the three main types of similarity in analogical problem solving?

1. Superficial: obvious features/context

2. Structural: underlying relationships/principles

3. Procedural: similar solving steps

What is analogical problem solving?

Solving problems by drawing comparisons between current and previous problems, highlighting similarities.

What does IGOR stand for when defining problem solving?

Initial state - clear description of how everything is set up at the beginning of the problem

Goal state - what the problem should look like at the end

Operators - the actions to be taken to get to the goal

(Operator) restrictions - what you are not allowed to do

What is the representational change theory?

• Prior knowledge and perception shape how we initially understand the problem.

• We then search for a solution based on that understanding.

• If no solution is found, we reach an impasse (get stuck).

• We then rethink or restructure the problem and try a new search for a solution.

• Insight occurs when the new representation leads to the answer.

What is myside bias?

The tendency to evaluate statements based on personal beliefs rather than on merit.

What is syllogistic reasoning?

Syllogistic reasoning is a type of deductive reasoning where you draw a conclusion from two premises (statements), typically involving categories or groups

Example

Major premise:

• All dogs are animals.

Minor premise:

• Max is a dog.

Conclusion:

• Therefore, Max is an animal

What is meant by modus tollens? Provide an example

A valid logical rule stating that if "If P, then Q" is true and Q is false, then P must also be false.

Premises:

• If the weather is nice, David takes a walk.

• David does not take a walk.

Conclusion:

• Therefore, the weather is not nice.

What is meant by modus ponens? Provide an example

Modus ponens is a valid logical rule stating that if "If P, then Q" is true and P is true, then Q must also be true.

Premises:

• If the weather is nice, David takes a walk.

• The weather is nice.

Conclusion:

• Therefore, David takes a walk.