AP European History - Unit 4: Scientific Revolution + Enlightenment Figures

Thomas Acquinas

Combined Aristotle’s ideas with Christian doctrine — adopted his idea of crystal spheres surrounding Earth + heavenly bodies

Ptolemy

Proposed planets move in circular motions — ideas widely accepted like Aristotle but later disproven by Copernicus.

Copernicus

Proposed that the sun is as the center of the universe (heliocentric model — Copernican theory) and that there are no crystal spheres, the universe has a huge size, revolutionized the idea of using math instead of philosophy to prove things

Tycho Brahe

Adopted Copernicus + Ptolemy’s ideas — believed that all planets except Earth revolve around the Sun

Built one of the first modern European planet observatories. 

Kepler

proposed that there are elliptical motions of planets, the time to orbit varies proportionally with the distance from the Sun, there are no uniform speeds of planets

Galileo

Experimental method, Law of Inertia, Discovered four of Jupiter’s moons proving that there are no crystal spheres

Could not express ideas but later did because of the Pope Urban VIII who he thought would accept his radical ideas —> later forced to recant ideas by the Catholic Church

Isaac Newton

Law of Universal Gravitation, still continued to study alchemy, viewed his role as discovering God’s secrets

Bacon (ENGLAND)

Used inductive reasoning (start with knowledge and observing to come to conclusions) + officialized the idea of empiricism: acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation instead of speculation

Descartes (FRANCE)

Used deducative reasoning (start with conclusion and use observations to prove/deny claim) + Cartesian dualism: all reality can be reduced to mind and matter; mind and body are two entirely different substances, need to doubt EVERYTHING

Galen

humoral theory — body is made up of blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm and an imbalance in these humors can lead to disease —- treated with bloodletting to balance humors

Paracelsus

Proved that disease and bodily issues are caused by chemical imbalances not humoral through experimenting

Vesalius

Studied the human anatomy through human dissection; “On the Structure of the Human Body”

William Harvey

Discovered that blood circulation is through veins and arteries

Robert Boyle

pressure of gas varies directly with volume

Pierre Bayle (FRANCE)

Huguenot, skepticism, human beliefs varied

Baruch Spinoza (DUTCH)

God = nature, mind and body are united, actions are shaped by outside events and not free will

Gottfried Leibniz (GERMANY)

developed calculus + believed that there are an infinite number of substance that matter is made up of

John Locke

ideas are derived from experience (education) + sovereignty of parliament > crown

Montesquieu

separation of powers (executive, judicial, legistlative — inspired by British government), used satired in his works to criticize French government

Voltaire

argued for freedom of speech, wanted better institutions and people, supported an absolute monarch because people were not capable of governing themselves, God has no influence in events on Earth (deism)

Madame Du Chalet

translated Newtons “Principia” + advocated for woman inclusion in science and education

Diderot

edited the “Encyclopedia” + taught people to think critically —- compiled a lot of authors to write information (many were controversial + reflected Enlightenment ideas)

Rousseau

believed that civilization was more destroying than liberating, the social contract — the general will is absolute and reflect the will of the people (not necessarily the majority), children develop through direct experience (Ideas reflect childhood experiences)—> elite mothers need to care for children more with less harsh discipline

David Hume (SCOTLAND)

civic mortality, religious skepticism, ideas ultimately reflect our experiences

Adam Smith (SCOTLAND)

the success of commercial life gives values of independence, competition, and fair playIm

Immanuel Kant (GERMANY)

freedom of press, individuals should obey laws in private lives as well (good will), absolute monarchy + religious faith

urged intellects to have courage to use their understandings —- if they were granted the freedom to press/express —> Enlightenment would follow

Cesare Beccaria (ITALY)

reforms — no torture, unnecessary imprisonment and punishments to reduce crime instead

Carl Von Linne (SWEDEN)

argued that God sorted nature into a hierarchy —- led to scientists ordering race into a hierarchy

James Beattie (SCOTTLAND)

argued that Europe started out as non-white + other non-white countries (Americas, Asia, Africa) had high civilizations 

Frederick the Great (PRUSSIA)

believed himself equal but still an absolute monarch (did not emphasize his divine right) — mainly governmental reforms

• stole Silesia

• freedom of religion + ideas

• improved schools

• no more torture + faster judges

• more territorial expansion —> camerialism: all parts of society should be used to help the monarch + benefit the public

ideas led to increased agriculture + industry

Catherine the Great (RUSSIA)

• westernize russia

• domestic reforms — abolish torture, improve education + gov.

  • reforms stopped after pugachev rebellion —> total control of serfs passed to nobles

• territorial expansion —> the partition of Poland — imbalance of power

Maria Theresa (AUSTRIA)

• got Silesia stolen from her — pragmatic sanction was broken by Frederick

  • reforms to reduce papal authority, create a stronger gov., improve agr, conditions with less noble power over serfs, taxed nobility

Joseph II

• gave religious freedom to protestant and jews

• abolished serfdom

  • let peasants pay landlords in cash instead of labor — later removed by Leopold II

Moses Mendellsohn

• argued for Jewish religious tolerance