Comparative Study of Genocide Midterm I.D. Terms

UN Genocide Convention

• International law adopted by the United Nations in 1948 defining genocide as any of the following five actions with the intent to destroy, whether in whole or a part, a national, racial, ethnical, or religious group. Also details states’ responsibility in preventing and punishing genocide in addition to establishing universal jurisdiction giving a means for international accountability and enabling prosecution regardless of where the crime occurs 

  • Killing members of the group

  • Causing serious bodily or mental harm

  • Deliberately inflicting conditions of life to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part

  • Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group

  • Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group

Protected groups

Groups protected under the UN Genocide Convention which includes racial, ethnical, religious, national, and

Unprotected groups

Any group that falls outside of those listed in the genocide convention

Intent/Intent to destroy

Specific and deliberate purpose to destroy a group, which is essential for classifying acts as genocide

5 Genocidal Acts

(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm; (c) Deliberately inflicting conditions of life to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group

Raphael Lemkin

Polish Lawyer of Jewish descent that coined term genocide. Defined it as a coordinated plan aimed at the destruction of the basic foundations of life of national groups, with the intent to obliterate the group 

Article I

 Declares that genocide is recognized as a crime under international law regardless of the circumstances, whether it be during peacetime or war time, and highlights states’ responsibilities to prevent genocide and punish those guilty of committing it

Article II

Declares that genocide refers to any of the five genocidal acts committed with the intent to destroy, be it in whole or part of, a racial, ethnical, national, or religious group

Nuremberg Trials/Indictment

Trials of key Nazi leaders that set precendents for prosecuting war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide

Lemkin’s Basic Concept of Genocide

Declares genocide as the intentional group destruction of specific groups, and highlights the presence of the following elements : special intent (specific intent to destroy group), systematic element (acts carried out in organized and coordinated manner), targeting of specific groups (violence against identifiable groups listed before), and plan of destruction (premeditated plan to obliterate targeted group)

Problems with Lemkin’s Basic Concept

Disagreements over meanings of intent, groups, and destruction. Like, how could intent be measured or inferred? Can genocide refer to all groups? What counts as destruction?

Straus’s Definition of Genocide

Genocide is large-scale violence (I.e. deliberate, systematic, widespread, organized violence), group-selective, and about destruction of groups

Atrocity Crimes

Term coined by Scheffer to describe cases of massive loss of civilian lives that weren’t considered genocide

Precursors to Genocide

Concept created and advocated by Scheffer to serve as warning signs of escalating violence and cases where genocide can occur. These precursors include dehumanization, discrimination, segregation, and political instability

Dark Side of Democracy

Concept created by Mann referring to the idea that not all democracy leads to genocide but there are democratic processes that can make it easy to enable or facilitate forms of oppression and violence. Democracy can be a tool for oppression if not properly managed, and when efforts are made to create a society of a particular group of people, genocide can occur

Charny's Definition of Genocide

“Mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of victims”

Holocaust Paradigm

Judgement that can be made when regarding whether a situation is a case of genocide or not. Term genocide and the Holocaust have become synonymous to some so individuals question whether a case “looks like the Holocaust or not” even though the Holocaust genocide case was very particular

Chalk and Jonassohn’s Definition of Genocide

“A form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator”

Fein's Definition of Genocide

“Sustained purposeful action by a perpetrator to physically destroy a collectivity directly or indirectly, through interdiction of the biological and social reproduction of group members, sustained regardless of the surrender or lack of threat offered by the victim”

Variation in Definitions of Genocide

Different definitions of genocide can vary on the intent, targets, mode, and agents of violence since there are disagreements between scholars regarding these elements

Umbrella Terms for Genocide

Mass killings, democide, mass categorical violence, and atrocity crimes can all fall under genocide

Parallel Terms of Genocide

Can include politicide (destruction of political group), ethnocide (destruction of culture), and gendercide (destruction of one gender)

Divided or plural societies

Associated with Kuper and highlighted as a precursor to genocide since these divisions often come from historical conflicts between groups and societal structures that divide them, creating grounds for violence between these groups. Some factors that contribute to this risk are deep distrust, ignorance, and social distancing between groups (focus on structural divisions)

Regime type

Associated with Rummel and connects genocide to autocratic regimes and dictatorships since there are elements within these regimes that contribute to the likelihood of genocide like concentration of power and habits of repression. Some concerns with this theory are empirical accuracy (the quality of the data linking the regime to genocide), timing, and frequency mismatch

Cultures of hatred

Deep-rooted divisions emphasizing animosity and prejudice towards specific groups (focus on psychological and social impacts of animosity). Some factors that contribute to this risk are dehumanization, bigotry, prejudice, and media incitement (the thing that causes the violence is the hatred/negative feelings towards a group that are baked into society) 

Institutionalized discrimination

Argues that genocide occurs when there are preexisting institutionalized practices that exclude one group of people within a society and are being treated as second-class citizens  (i.e. citizenship rights, voting rights, etc.). Some factors that contribute to this include exclusion and denial of rights since the group has already been written off

Stanton’s 8 Stages of Genocide

The stages of genocide include : Classification, symbolization, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, extermination, and denial

Hardship/difficult life conditions

Suggests that genocide occurs during times of extreme deprivation or crisis, in which conditions have significantly and people are frustrated so they want to blame someone/another group for their problems. Some factors that contribute to this include frustration, aggression, and scapegoated, and are often guided by prejudice. Concerns regarding this theory include empirical accuracy and frequency mismatch

The 3 “Classic” Macro Theories

Divided societies, cultures of hatred, and institutionalized discrimination

Ideology (Mann)

Genocide is the product of ideas in people’s heads, specifically leaders’ specific ideologies as a means for them to attempt to bring their vision to life. Relating to democracy, he argues that because it is the rule of the people, genocide can occur when “the people” is imagined as a singular ethnic, racial, or religious group (i.e. ethnic nationalism)

Enemies of the people

Main thought process present in genocide (particularly from an ideologic standpoint) in which leaders frame their actions as means of  saving the country from the perceived enemies. Emphasizes need to exclude “outsides” and those deemed as threats to those that are “in” and belong to the society

Strategy (Valentino)

Argues that genocide and mass killings come from the strategic goals of leaders in a top-down approach in which elites view these acts of violence as the most effective means to achieve their goals. Calculated choice to use violence against civilians to gain advantage in armed conflict, driven by state objectives rather than hatred or irrationality

Ideology + Strategy (Straus)

Highlights the two key elements in how genocide emerges during wartime and how war matters. In terms of strategy, war amplifies threats perceptions, legitimizes violence, and leads to the mobilization of armies in addition to favoring more radical elements and marginalizing more radical ones. In terms of ideology, leaders define who the enemies are by creating the narratives about who their state is and what they represent (“founding narratives”) that can be shaped in times of war, influencing whether genocide occurs or not

Challenge to “Classic” Macro Theories–Timing

Theories don’t explain why genocide happens when it does or the sharp escalation

Challenge to “Classic” Macro Theories– Frequency mismatch

Idea that variables like hardships/difficult life conditions are common in the world yet genocide is not common

Challenge to “Classic” Macro Theories– Prejudice/discrimination mismatch

These are times of greater and lesser degrees of antipathy (hatred and even discrimination) between groups everywhere but these periods do not necessarily correspond to levels of violence

Challenge to “Classic” Macro Theories– Endogeneity

Idea that variable that we are focusing on is conditional on the outcomes rather than causing the outcome. Group divisions and hatred can be an outcome of violence, rather than a cause

Micro Theories

• Dehumanization

• Psychological predisposition to violence

• Greed and opportunism

• Legitimacy and social authority

• Group dynamics and mob mentality

• Frustration and aggression

• Ideological commitment

• Social identity

• Fear and insecurity

• Other motivations in micro theories : Can include things like coercion, jealous, revenge, and so on

Dehumanization

Perpetrators consider those they are targeting as less than human

Psychological predisposition to violence

People are abnormal, sadists, deviants, criminals, bullies, raised by bad parents, etc.

Greed and opportunism

Harming people to advance, take property, or keep a job (associated with military and police but can be seen in other careers)

Legitimacy and social authority

Idea of “following orders” from those ranked above them in their job or position in society

Group dynamics and mob mentality

Groups amplify destructive behavior like individuals doing things they wouldn’t do alone or creating an “us” vs. “them” mentality. Also attributed to peer pressure and sub-group systems of meaning

Frustration and aggression

Harming other people because they blame them for difficult life conditions and those conditions make people want to lash out. Idea of “relative deprivation” is related to harming someone else because a person is not where they think they can be

Ideological commitment

Individuals engage in violence because they are committed to an ideological vision and complying with violence is a way of showing this support (party or leaders may tell them what to do, or party may have certain ideals). Beliefs may arise naturally or be manipulated through things like propaganda

Social identity

Solidarity, harming to show commitment to group or antipathy caused by wanted to hurt another group because it’s seen as a threat to the person’s group

Fear and insecurity

Harming others because of fear of another group. Relates to “Security Dilemma” in a kill-or-be-killed mindset, so individuals harm others before they can be harmed themselves, preemptive violence, but this can lead an individual to spiral

CUP (Young Turks)

Revolutionary nationalist wing group with a pan-Tukic identity, language, and religion that would go on to displace the Sultan. Group had a modernist outlook based on nationalism and a revitalisist vision (revive the decaying state) by focusing on ethnicity and unity of culture

Special Organization

Armed group made up of ex-convicts and ideologues similar to a police unit that was deployed to Armenian areas of the state to constrain perceived political mobilization and  rebellion

Role of World War I in Armenian Genocide

Ottomans defeated by Russia (who was on opposite side of war) and Ottomans blamed them for their loss. Armenians were noted as Russian allies and were therefore noted as the empire’s weak point

Ottoman Empire

Multi-ethnic state that was semi-autonomous. Held Muslim and Turkish population in a higher regard than Armenians, who were considered second-class citizens by the state

Millet system

Political organization that separated religious communities and allowed them to govern themselves under their own laws and leaders. Armenians were treated as their own millet but still considered second-class citizens in this state

Syrian desert

Armenians were deported here when they were expelled from the empire

1890s Massacres

Period from 1895 to 1896 where the empire saw widespread massacres; at least 100,000 Armenians were killed primarily by Ottoman soldiers and mobs let loose by the authorities. Many Armenian villages were forcibly converted to Islam

1908 coup and aftermath

Led by Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in which the sultan was overthrown (and placed under house arrest). Period of optimistim for the empire, since old corrupt leader was replaced by younger, more modern group was in charge and Armenians believed this would be a new beginning

Balkan Wars

Wars in 1912 in which Ottomans fought to keep territories but lost. Led to loss of places like Macedonian and cleansing of areas, in which muslins were cleansed from territories, leading to growing tension between Christians and Muslims. Nationalist wing became dominant as a result

Three Levels of Perpetration

Model of preparation with the top being made up of elite consensus (driven by leadership), the middle made up of subnational allies (i.e. governors, mayors, local police, etc.), and the bottom made up of popular compliance and opportunism

Poland Invasion

Poland considered a “laboratory for Germany racial imperialism” where violence was first used to remove and eliminate Poles, to resettle ethnic Germans and repopulate territory with “pure” Germans. Created climate of terror. Plans to resolve the “Jewish” question also considered during this time and the”solution” ultimately was the death camps

Einsatzgruppen

Military group that targeted Polish elite in addition to Jews and engaged in killings, assassinations, and forced displacement. Did mostly target Jews for violence

Beer Hall Putsch

Failed attempt by Hitler to take power (failed coup). Led Hitler to go to prison where he wrote Mein Kempf

Aftermath of WWI and Effect on Germany

Resulted in many losses for Germany, from population in casusualties, to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles which led to Germany losing territory, having to pay reparations, and having military restructions. Led to rise of Nazi party due to promise of change and political instability

Evolution of “Jewish Question”

Ideas on how to deal with the Jews, went from expulsion plans into Soviet spaces or Madagascar to ghettoization and production, and ultimately to death camps

Final Solution

Nazi plan for the systematic extermination of the Jewish population. Transported from ghettos to death camps where they were gassed and worked to death

Madagascar Plan

Plan to send all Jews to Madagascar. Plan failed because Britain didn’t fall, so Germany could not use the seas since they could be challenged and easily taken by Britain’s strong navy

Euthanasia Program

Known as a “mercy program” where those “unworthy” of life were killed in gas killing centers. This included tens of thousands of disabled or mentally Germans and also served as a model for what to do about Jewish population

Kristallnacht

Violent attacks unleashed against Jewish population and their propety. Turning point concerning fate of the Jews, go from discrimination to violent targeting

Operation Barbarossa

Turning point that shifts Germans to go further with Hitler expanding his idea into a worldwide racial war leading to the invasion of Societ Union. The size of Jewish population grows with this invasion so scale of Jewish question changes for Nazis

Modernity

Use of modern tools for human destruction. Includes social reengineering to make a society based on race, bureaucracies (disconnection between those who are making the decisions and the violence that they are ordering), and an increase in technologies of destruction like grenades and machine guns

Adolf Eichman

German Austrian Nazi official. Head of office that organized the “emigration” of Jews. First wanted to round up Jewish population and push them into Societ territory

Mein Kampf

Written by Hitler during his time in prison and emphasized racial purity as the core issue in Germany. Framed struggle as good vs. evil in terms of the “pure” Arians and the “impure” “destroyers of culture” like Jews

Discrimination policies place on Jews

Included Nuremberg laws which stripped Jews of German citizenship and outlawed marriage between Germans and Jews (also couldn’t be friends), social segregation of Jews from public areas like schools, economic exclusion with Jews being removed from jobs, and anti-Semitic propaganda

Dachau

The first concentration camp

Babi Yar

Most famous killing during “face-to-face” killing period. Mass killings were becoming a logistical program and it was hard to keep up with firing squads so Nazi Germany turned to euthanasia program

Macro Theories

National-level processes with societies as principal units of analysis. Can deal with culture and other factors engrained in societies. Focus on conditions on national level that can explain why genocide occurs

Micro Theories

Smaller scale focus, primarily on individuals (like leaders and soldiers) and why these individuals participate in violence that constitutes genocide

Lebensraum

 Idea of race and space and that racial purification would happen through physical space. Cleansing operations and conquering of territories, then having ethnic unity, can help achieve purity by creating a space for ethnic unity to exist. Built on imperialism and colonialism, but highly based on ethnic purity