Issues and Debates

What is gender bias?

The differential treatment or representation of men and women in psychological research, which can lead to inaccurate or unbalanced findings.

What is universality?

The idea that psychological theories, concepts, or findings are applicable to all people, regardless of their gender, culture or other demographic factors.

What threatens universiality?

Gender bias and culture bias

What is Alpha bias?

Research/theories that exaggerates or overestimates differences between the sexes. These differences are presented as fixed and inevitable. They usually devalue females compared to males.

What is an example of alpha bias in psychological research?

In his psychoanalytic approach, Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos. This makes women morally inferior to men.

What is beta bias?

Research/theories that minimise/underestimate the differences between men and women. This occurs when female participants aren’t included as part of the research process and the findings are assumed to be applicable to both sexes equally.

What is an example of beta bias in psychological research?

The fight of flight response. Early research was based exclusively on male animals and assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation. However, Taylor et al (2000) found that women are more likely to take a tend and befriend response.

What is androcentrism?

The classification of normal behaviour is drawn for research from all male samples and any behaviour that deviates from this standard is seen as abnormal by comparison. This is an example of beta bias.

What does androcentrism lead to?

Female behaviour being misunderstood e.g. PMS

AO3 for gender bias: What are the implications of gender bias?

Gender-biased research can lead to misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and reinforce discriminatory practices. Such research may provide a scientific justification for denying women opportunities in the workplace or in society. This can be damaging, for example Dalton (1964) claimed that women are more likely to have accidents, commit crimes and score lower on IQ tests during their menstrual cycle.

AO3 for gender bias: What is the issue with sexism within the research process?

The underrepresentation of women in senior research positions means that female concerns are often less reflected in research questions. Male researchers are more likely to have their work published and studies that identify gender differences may receive more attentions. Further, in lab experiments, females may find themselves in unfair dynamics with male researchers. This can perpetuate institutional sexism.

AO3 for gender bias: How does understanding gender bias lead to reflexivity?

Rather than viewing bias solely as a threat to objectivity, researchers are beginning to acknowledge it as an essential part of the research process. For instance, Dambrin and Lambert examined the underrepresentation of women in executive roles within accountancy firms, and included a reflection on how their own gender-related experiences shaped their interpretation of the data. This form of reflexivity marks an important development in psychological research, promoting greater transparency and self-awareness. As a result, it may help reduce the impact of gender bias in future studies by encouraging researchers to consider how their perspectives influence both the questions they ask and the way they interpret findings.

AO3 for gender bias: How can it create double standards?

Some gender-biased research is based on arguments that assume gender differences are natural, fixed and inevitable. For example Walkerdine (1930) “found” that higher education could damage a woman’a ability to have children. This was based on biased beliefs rather than evidence. This can create a double standard, where the same behaviour is judged differently depending on whether a man or a woman is doing it.

What is cultural bias?

The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture.

What is ethnocentrism?

A form of cultural bias and is a belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. It involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.

What is an example of ethnocentrism?

Ainsworth’s Strange Situations - reflecting norms and values of American culture.

What is cultural relativism?

The idea that norms/values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural constructs.

What is an etic approach?

Looks at behaviour from the outside of a given culture and attempts to find trends that can be generalised as universal behaviours.

What is an emic approach?

Looks at behaviour within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are relative to that culture.

What is an imposed etc?

Assuming that findings from a study in one culture can be applied universally when in fact they are only relative to the culture in which they were studied.

What is an example of an imposed etc?

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation - it assumed that the US based model for classifying attachment was the norm around the rest of the world.

AO3 for culture bias: How may individualism and collectivism be less apparent in modern day?

Critics argue that this distinction between cultures as either individualistic and collectivist is lazy and simplistic that no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14/15 studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction. This could suggest that cultural bias is less on an issue than it once was.

AO3 for culture bias: Why may a more balanced approach between universality and cultural relativism be needed?

Not all human behaviours are culturally specific - some are universal. For example, Ekman (1989) found that facial expressions are recognised world-wide. This suggests that psychologists should study both universal and cultural behaviours to get a full understanding of human psychology.

AO3 for culture bias: How can it cause stereotypes?

Herstein and Murray (1994) highlighted how an American IQ test used before WW1 showed that Europeans and African Americans scored lower than Americans. However, many test questions were based on American history and culture, giving American pps an unfair advantage. this created the false stereotype that Americans were mentally superior.

AO3 for culture bias: Why is operationalising variables across cultures difficult?

Psychological concepts may not be experienced the same way in different cultures, making it hard to measure them accurately. For example, the same emotion can lead to different behaviours depending on the cultural background. These differences can affect how pps respond to research as well as how researchers interpret results, reducing the validity of cross-cultural studies.

What is free will?

The idea that as human beings we are essentially self-determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions. It doesn’t deny that there may be biological and environmental forces that exert some influence on behaviour but implies that we are able to reject these.

Which approach advocates for free will?

The humanistic approach.

What is determinism?

The idea that all behaviour has a cause and is thus predictable. Free will is an illusion and our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.

What is hard determinism also known as?

Fatalism

What is hard determinism/fatalism?

It suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and it should be possible to identify and describe these causes. Assumes that everything we think and do is dictated by external and internal forces we can’t control.

What is soft determinism?

Suggests that humans have conscious control over the way they behave. it represents a middle ground - people do have a choice, but this is limited by external or internal factors and there is an element of free will in all behaviour.

Which approach advocates for soft determinism?

Cognitive approach

What is biological determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.e.g. genetics, hormones, evolution.

What is environmental determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control. Experience of choice is the sum of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us through our lives.

Which approach advocates for biological determinism?

The biological approach

Which approach advocates for environmental determinism?

The behaviourist approach.

What did Skinner think about Free Will?

That it was an illusion and that all behaviour is a result of conditioning.

What is psychic determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control. Suggests that behaviour is determined and directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood.

AO3 for determinism: What is the case for it?

Determinism is consistent with the aims of science. The belief that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences. Also, the value of such research is that prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments and therapies.

AO3 for determinism: What is the case against it?

The hard determinist aspect isn’t consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. In a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions. For example, criminals such as Waldrop have been excused for their actions due to deterministic views. Further determinism can be unfalsifiable as it’s based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist even though they may yet have not been found. This is impossible to prove wrong and suggests the determinist view may not be as scientific as it appears.

AO3 for free will: What is the case for free will?

Everyday experiences gives the impression we are constantly exercising free will through mundane choices, such as what to eat for breakfast. This has face validity. Roberts et al (2000) found that those who had a strong belief in fatalism were more likely to have depression. This shows that even if we don’t have free will but think we do, it can have a positive impact.

AO3 for free will: What is the case against free will?

Neurological studies of decision-making by Libet (1985) found that activity related to whether to press a button with the left of right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before pps reported being consciously aware of making such a decision. This suggests that even the most basic experiences of free-will are decided and determined by our brain before we became aware of them.

What do nativists argue?

That human characteristics are innate

Who was famously a nativist?

Descartes

What do empiricists argue'?

That the mind is a blank slate at birth and we learn through the environment.

Who was famously an empricist?

Locke

What is the heritiability coefficient?

It’s used to assess hereditary. It ranges from 0-1 and indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis. The lower the value, the less likely it is that genetics determine the factor.

What is the heritability coefficient for IQ?

0.5 across multiple studies, thus suggesting that both genetics and environment are important factors for intelligence.

What are the different levels of the environment in nurture?

Prenatal terms which is the mother’s physical and psychological state during pregnancy.

Postnatal experiences including social conditions and their cultural context.

What is the interactionist approach?

It takes a view with a mixture of both nature and nurture.

What does the diathesis-stress model suggest?

That psychopathology is caused by genetic/biological vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger.

What is an example of the diathesis-stress model?

Tienari et al (2004) found that in a group of Finish adoptees mostly likely to develop the disorder had a biological relative with the disorder and a relationship with their adoptive families that were dysfunctional.

What is epigenetics?

Refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. Interactions with the environment leave epigenetic marks on our DNA which tell our body what genes to ignore and which to use which is then passed on/

What does epigenetics introduce to the nature/nurture debate?

A third element in the debate: the life experience of previous generations.

What is an example of epigenetics?

Dias and Ressler (2014) gave male lab mice an electric shock every time they were exposed to the smell of a chemical. The mice came to show a fear reaction as soon as the scent was present. The mice’s children also feared the smell even though they hadn’t been exposed to the smell or given any shocks.

AO3 for nature/nurture: What are the implications of Nature?

It suggests that our traits and behaviours are mostly determined by genes, which has been controversial as it has been used in the past to justify eugenics - the harmful practice of selective breeding to “improve” human populations.

AO3 for nature/nurture: What are the implications of Nurture?

Empiricists suggest behaviour is shaped by the environment and can be changed by modifying surroundings. This is useful in therapy (e.g. rewarding good behaviour), but it raises ethical concerns as it could lead to attempts to control or manipulate people’s nature.

AO3 for nature/nurture: What is the issue with the concept of constructivism?

The notion that genes and the environment interact. People create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature. E.g. aggressive children are more likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours. Plomin (1994) referred to this as niche building. This suggests its impossible to separate nature and nurture.

AO3 for nature/nurture: What evidence is there for the nature debate?

Plomin and Defries (1975) studied adopted children, their biological parents and their adoptive parents over several years. They found that as children got older, their IQ scores became more similar to the biological parents rather than their adoptive parents. This supports

What is holism?

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an individual rather than it’s constituent parts. Behaviour can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole.

Which approach takes a holistic view?

The Humanistic approach

What is reductionism?

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into constituent parts.

What are the 3 levels of reductionism-holism?

Social/Cultural level (holistic) → psychological level → biological level (reductionist)

What is biological reductionism?

The idea that complex behaviours and psychological processes can be explained by breaking them down into simpler biological components, such as genes, neurotransmitters or brain structures.

What does the biologically reductionist approach suggest?

That to understand behaviour, we should focus on its most basic biological parts.

Which approach is biologically reductionist?

The biological approach

What is environmental reductionism?

The idea that complex behaviours can be understood by breaking them down into simpler environmental factors such as learned associations or external stimuli.

What does environmental reductionism suggest?

That behaviour is shaped primarily by the environment and can be explained through observable interactions with surroundings.

AO3 for holism: What is the case for it?

Certain aspects of social behaviour only emerge in group settings and cant be fully understood by examining individuals or constituent components alone. For example, in the Standford Prison experiment, the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of prisoners and guards couldn’t be grasped by studying individual pps in isolation. The dynamics and interactions within the group offered deeper insights. This demonstrates that holistic explanations which consider the broader social context, offer a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.

AO3 for holism: What is the case against it?

Holism often lacks rigorous scientific testing, which can make its explanations vague and speculative. For instance, humanistic psychology is frequently criticised for having limited empirical evidence. When multiple perspectives are combined, it becomes difficult to identify which factor is most influential, complicating the development of effective therapies. This suggests that, for practical problem-solving, more focused, lower-level explanations may sometimes be more useful.

AO3 for reductionism: What is the case for it?

Reductionism is essential in scientific research, as it allows complex behaviours to be broken down into measurable, operationalised variables. This approach increases reliability; for example, the behaviourist approach showed that complex learning could be studied effectively in controlled lab settings. By focusing on fundamental components, reductionism enhances psychology’s credibility and aligns it with the natural sciences.

AO3 for reductionism: What is the case against it?

Reductionism can oversimplify complex behaviours, leading to a loss of validity, as it often ignores the social context in which behaviour occurs. For example, while the physiological act of pointing a finger is the same across situations, analysing the process alone doesn’t explain why it’s done. This suggests that reductionist explanations may miss important aspects of behaviour that a broader context can provide.

What does the idiographic approach focus on?

Understanding individual cases in depth rather than creating general laws about behaviour.

What does the idiographic approach emphasise?

Subjective experiences

What sort of data collecting methods does the idiographic typically use?

Case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report methods to collect qualitative data.

Which approaches use the idiographic approach?

The humanistic approach, which explores the conscious experience of each person, and the psychodynamic approach, which often relies on detailed case studies.

What does the nomothetic approach seek to do?

Study human behaviour by establishing general principles or universal laws, enabling comparison, classification and the ability to predict or control behaviour.

What does the nomothetic approach rely on?

Scientific methods, with hypotheses that are rigorously tested and analysed for statistical significance.

What sort of methods and samples does the nomothetic approach typically use?

Quantitative methods with large sample sizes.

AO3 for the idiographic approach: What is the case for the idiographic approach?

It offers a comprehensive, in-depth understanding of individual experiences, which can complement the nomothetic approach by adding insight or challenging general principles. For example, the case study of HM provided valuable hypotheses and deeper understanding of brain function, contributing to the field of memory research.

AO3 for the idiographic approach: What is the case against it?

It is often narrow and limited, as findings from single cases may not generalise. For instance, Freud’s concept of the Oedipus complex, based on a single case, lacks reliable basis for comparison and generalisation. It’s less scientifically rigorous, as case studies can be subjective and prone to researcher bias.

AO3 for the nomothetic approach: What is the case for it?

It aligns with scientific standards, using controlled, standardised conditions - e.g. statistical analysis - to ensure reliable and generalisable results. This enables for the establishment of norms of typical behaviour, like average IQ scores, which increases psychology’s scientific credibility.

AO3 for the nomothetic approach: What is the case against it?

Lab-based studies may lack real-world relevance, often ignoring individual, subjective experiences, thus missing the richness of personal human experience. For example, knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia provides little insight into the actual experience of living with the condition.

What are ethical implications?

These refer to the potential consequences and responsibilities of conducting research, particularly regarding the rights and welfare of participants, as well as the broader effects of findings on public perception, policy and group representation.

What can research findings do?

Shape public policies and influence societal views on certain groups, which may lead to unintended consequences.

Who can psychological research significantly impact?

Both participants and society at large.

What do researchers have limited control over?

The media portrayal of their findings, potential policy impacts and how these may affect societal attitudes.

What does socially sensitive research refer to?

Studies that explore topics which may have significant implications for individuals or groups, particularly those that are controversial, stigmatised, or related to vulnerable populations.

How should psychologists approach socially sensitive research?

They shouldn’t shy away from it, but rather they should approach it with a heightened sense of responsibility and ethical awareness.

What are the 3 concerns Seiber and Stanley (1988) identified that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research?

The implications: The wider effects of the study such as giving “scientific” evidence for discrimination.

Uses/public policy: What the research could be used for.

The validity: As some findings that were presented as objective have turned to be fraudulent but have been adopted into society (e.g. the 11+ test).

AO3 for Ethical implications of research studies and theory: How can socially sensitive research be beneficial?

Scarr (1988) argued that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can heko reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Socially sensitive research into the unreliability of EWT has improved the legal justice system. This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.

Ethical implications of research studies and theory: What is the influence of question framing?

The way research questions are written can affect how people understand and interpret the results. For examples, studies comparing “alternative relationships” (e.g. homosexual ones) to heterosexual relationships may show a heterosexual bias if they judge non-heterosexual relationships against heterosexual standards. Therefore, researchers should approach their work with an open mind, free from preconceived notions.

Ethical implications of research studies and theory: How can it impact social policy?

It can influence government policies and decisions made by institutions. While some research may seem harmless, it can significant social consequences. This can raise ethical concerns if the research turns out to be fabricated.

Ethical implications of research studies and theory: What is the problem with subjectivity?

Socially sensitive research is typically subject to rigorous review by an ethics committee. However, evaluating the true value of such research is often subjective. Ethic committees may anticipate outcomes, but the full impact can only be truely understood once the findings are made public. This unpredictability adds complexity to the ethical review process, as the broader effects of public perception, policy and group representation may emerge only after publication.