ap psych final semester 1

empiricism

belief that science should be based on observations and experimentation

structuralism

• introduced by Wilhem Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener

• used introspection of reveal the structures of the mind

functionalism

• introduced by William James

• encouraged explorations of down - to - earth emotions, memories, willpower, and habits

• influenced by Darwin

• explored how mental and behavioral processes function and how they enable the organism to adapt, flourish, and survive

introspection

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes

humanistic psychology

• field of psychology that studies human potential to be the best version of themselves and to grow as individuals

• believed that behaviorism was limited

• belief built by abraham maslow and carl rogers

cognitive neuroscience

• studies how our brain interpret, process, and remember information

• focuses on inner thoughts and how our interpretations impacts our behaviors

• hard to study in an objective and observable manner

• founded by Michael Gazzaniga

Natural Selection

• founded by Charles Darwin

• the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

• focused on the survival of the fittest

biopsychosocial approach

• includes biological, psychological and societal aspects of a situation to determine behavior

nature-nurture

• debate between whether nature (biological aspects) or nurture (societal relations) impact your behavior and thinking

behavioral psychology

• believes that psychology should be an objective science based on observable behavior and the principles of learning without referring to the metal processes

• influenced by John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner

• criticizes the psychodynamic approach

• focuses on reinforcement, punishment, and modification of behavior through conditioning

biological pyshcology

• links biological processes (nervous system and endocrine system) with psychology

• believes that behavior and mental actions are influenced by neurological systems

cognitive psychoology

scientific study of al the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information

evolutionary psychology

• studies how behavior is influenced adaptation and natural selection

• charles darwin

• focuses on fear responses as well (involuntary based on adaptations)

psychodynamic psychology

• a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

• focuses on the unconscious mind and the subject’s early childhood

• sigmund freud

basic research

pure science that aims to to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

hindsight bias

tendency to believe that after learning the outcome, that we knew it all along

critical thinking

• thinking that does not blindly accept arguements and conclusions

• it examines assumptions, assess the source, discerns hidden values. evaluates evidence, and assess conclusions

the scientific method

• a systematic procedure for gathering and testing ideas

• involves forming hypotheses based on observations, designing experiments to test those hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions to either support or refute the original hypothesis

• emphasizes critical thinking and empirical evidence, ensuring that conclusions are based on observable, repeatable experiments

theory

• explanation created based on results of studies to back it up and products behavior or events

• based on a hypothesis

hypothesis

• a testable prediction often implied by a theory

• must be falsifiable

operational defintion

• outline of procedures on which experiment was conducted on

• allows the experiment to be replicated

• explains how variables are defined and measured

case study

• uncontrolled experiment where a situation os studied

• examines people and the situation to provide information

• hopes to reveal universal principles

naturalistic pbservation

• uncontrolled or non-experiment

• studies and observes a real world situation to gather authentic data

• there is not control or manipulation of the situation

random sample

• a group of representative people chosen from a population on which the study is focusing on

• they must be randomly selected, meaning they all have an equal chance of participating

correlation/correlation coefficient

measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other

experimental/experiment group

group on which is exposed to the treatment, or one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, group that doesn’t receive treatment

random assignment

situation in which participants are randomly chosen to be in the experimental or control group

double blind procedure

situation where testers and participants are not aware or who is in the control group and who is the experimental group, so they just observe and note down results

placebo

fake pill/treatment given to participants to make them believe that they are under treatment as well

independent varibale

cause of the results, variable that can be altered

dependent variable

the results, is manipulated by the independent variable

confounding variable

variable that is not the independent variable but can still alter or influence the results

validity

the extent to which a test or experiement measures or predicts what it is supposed to

mode

most frequently occurring score in a distribution

mean

the average of the results taken by adding all of them and dividing it by the number of results

median

the middle value in a list of ordered results

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how far away the scores are from the mean

normal curve

• aka normal distribution

• asymmetrical bell shaped curve that describes he distribution of many types of data

• fewer near the extremes, many have low standard deviation

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely is is that an obtained result occurred by chance

informed consent

before the study, research participants are told enough information to ensure that they can decide whether they want to participate in the the study or not

debriefing

explaining the results, purpose, and information of a study to the participants after the experiment

wilhem wundt

• father of structuralism

• worked with Edward Bradford Titchener

• believed that introspection can be sued to determine and study the structure of the human mind

william james

• father of functionalism

• influenced by charles darwin

• explored how mental and behavioral process function and how they enable organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

sigmund freud

father of the psychodynamic approach of psychology where the mental processes are driven by an unconsciousness processes and are influenced by one’s early childhood

john watson

father of behaviorism who believed that psychology should be an observable science

b.f. skinner

• follower and contributor to behaviorism

• dismissed introspection and defined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior

carl rogers

father of humanistic psychology along with abraham maslow who emphasized on the human potential to grow as individuals

ivan pavlov

follower and contributor to behaviorism and pioneered the study of learning

charles darwin

• father of natural selection and evolutionary psychology

• believed that natural selection and adaptation influence behavior

neuron

cell that make up nerves within the nervous system that transmits messages throughout the body

dendrites

• the branches of a neuron located on its cell body

• receives information and transmits it through the neuron

axon

the long neuron extension of which a signal passes through

myelin sheath

protects an axon and allows an impulse to travel faster

action potentional

when the positive na+ ions enter the neuron and an impulse is sent through the neuron

refractory period

• the period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

• the positive ions begin to leave the neuron and the neuron becomes negative again

threshold

the baseline amount of electrical impulse needed for an action potential to occur and a neuron to fire

all or none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing with full strength or not firing

synapse

gap between two neurons (one’s axon terminals and one’s dendrites) where neurotransmitters are released and capture

neurotransmitters

• chemical messengers that are sent through neurons

• influence whether neuron will generate a neutral impulse

endorphins

the body’s natural pain-killer neurotransmitters, linked to pleasure as well

agonist

intensifies strength of neurotransmitters and the response

antagonist

blocks the response by binding to a receptor site

nervous system

body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons that are a part of the of body and connect them to the central nervous system

central nervous system

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

somatic nervous system

• division of the peripheral nervous system that controls all the voluntary actions of the body

• controls skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

• controls all the involuntary responses of the glands and muscles of the internal organs

• consists of the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

• consists of the calming responses and conserves the energy of the body

• under the autonomic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

• consists of al the stress responses such as mobilizing one’s energy

• under the autonomic nervous system

nerves

• bundled axons that form neural cables

• connects the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

relay information from one’s sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motors neurons

relays information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internal and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs

reflex

an automatic response to a sensory stimulus

endocrine system

body’s slow chemical communication system of glands and hormones

hormones

• chemical messengers that are created by glands in the endocrine system

• travel through the bloodstream

adrenal glands

glands that are located on top of the kidneys that control the flight or fight response (epinephrine and norepinephrine) in times of stress

pituitary gland

• known as the master gland which is controlled by the hypothalamus

• controls all the hormone releasing through control of all the endocrine glands

computer tomography scan (CT)

• takes x-ray pictures from different angels and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slide of the brain’s structure

• also called the CAT scan

positron emission tomography scan (PET)

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes when the brain performs a task

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generate images of soft tissue

• shows brain anatomy

brainstem

• part where spinal cord swells as it enters the skull

• consist of the medulla and the pons

• oldest part and centra core of the brain

• responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

• located in base of the brain stem

• controls breathing and heartbeat

thalamus

• brain’s sensory control center

• located on top of the brain

• transmits sensory inpput to sensory receiving information in brain then transmits decision from cerebellum to medulla

reticular formation

• runs through the brain stem and thalamus

• controls arousal

cerebellum

• located at the backside of the brain

• receives sensory information and transmits decisions of movement and balance

• enables learning and memory

limbic system

• consists of amygdala, hypothalamuses, and hippocampus

• associated with emotion, memories, and drives

• located below the cerebral hemispheres

amydala

• within the limbic system

• controls emotion

hypothalamus

• controls pituitary gland

• within limbic system

• directs several maintenance activities such as drinking, eating, and regulating temperature

• linked to emotion and reward

cerebral cortex

ultimate control and information processing center

frontal lobe

• involved in decisions making, speech, muscle movements, and making plans

• located within cerebral cortex behind forehead

parietal lobe

• related to sensory input for touch and body position

• located on top of the head and toward the rear in the cerebral cortex

occipital lobe

• related to eyesight

• receives information form visual fields

• back of the head within the cerebral cortex

temporal lobe

• related to auditory information

• each receives information primarily from the opposite ear

• lies roughly above the ears within the cerebral cortex

motor cortex

• related to voluntary movements

• located at rear of frontal lobes

somatosensory cortex

• at front of parietal lobes

• registers and progress body touch and movement sensations

association area

• areas of cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions

• involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking