Organizational behavior Exam 2

types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment

Positive reinforcement

positive stimulus applied following a desired behavior 

Negative Reinforcement

negative stimulus removed following a desired behavior 

Extinction

positive stimulus removed following an undesired behavior

Punishment

negative stimulus applied following an undesired behavior

Whats the purpose of positive and negative reinforcement?

are used to increase the probability of desired behaviors. 

whats the purpose of Extinction and Punishment Reinforcement

used to decrease the probability of undesired behaviors. 

Continuous Reinforcement

the behavior is reinforced each and every time it occurs; this is not practical in many situations because it requires close monitoring, can be very costly, and can lead to satiation 

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules:

Fixed interval

Fixed Ratio

Variable Interval

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Predictable and based on time

Fixed ratio

predictable, based on the number of times the behavior is exhibited

Variable Interval

unpredictable, occurs unpredictably within some range of time 

Variable Ratio

unpredictable, odds increase based on the number of times the behavior is performed

Common Organizational Errors Involving Reinforcement: 

- Confusing Rewards with Reinforcers 

- Neglecting Reinforcement Preferences 

- Neglecting Intangible Sources of Reinforcement

Motivation

refers to the forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person’s effort. 

Elements of Work Motivation

Direction of Behavior

Level of Effort

Level of Persistence

Does motivation equate to performance?

Does not. Multiple factors (e.g., motivation, ability, resources, and luck) all play a role in determining an individual’s performance. Thus, motivation and performance are moderately positively correlated. However, motivation is one of the predictors of performance that a manager can directly influence. 

Extrinsic Motivation

behavior is performed in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment. 

Intrinsic Motivation

behavior is performed because the behavior is interesting/enjoyable or provides a sense of accomplishment. 

Overall concept of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Motivation

Basic Idea: Lowest level of need that is currently unfilled serves as the primary motivator of behavior. 

Alderfer's ERG Theory of motivation

Basic Idea: People tend to progress up the hierarchy, but multiple needs may motivate behavior at any one time. 

Incorporates the idea of a Frustration-Regression Process (aka the concept of need frustration) 

Process Theories of Motivation

these theories focus on the cognitive processes that determine motivation   

Need Theories of Motivation

these theories focus on individuals’ basic human needs 

Expectancy Theory  

Major Components: Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy 

Basic idea: a motivation theory that explains how individuals make choices based on their expectations of desired outcomes. It suggests that people are motivated to act in a certain way when they believe that their efforts will lead to performance, and that performance will lead to rewards that they personally value.

Basic Premise: Individuals attempt to maximize their expected utility

Valence

attractiveness of the outcomes
Q: Do I like and value the outcome(s) available?

Instrumentality

The relationship between performance and outcomes
Qs: If I do well, will I be rewarded? Does performance lead to rewards?

Expectancy

– the relationship between effort and performance
Qs: Can I successfully perform the task? Does effort increase performance?

Effort → Performance → Outcomes Model

explains how individuals are motivated to act based on their expectations that effort will lead to performance and that performance will lead to desired outcomes.

Effort (E → P)

• The belief that increased effort will improve performance.

• Influenced by Expectancy: The perceived probability that effort will lead to successful performance.

Performance (P → O)

• The belief that high performance will result in desired outcomes.

• Influenced by Instrumentality: The perceived connection between performance and outcomes.

Outcomes

• The rewards or consequences of performance.

• Influenced by Valence: The attractiveness or desirability of the outcome.

How VIE Determines Motivation and Fits into the Effort → Performance → Outcomes Model

stands for Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy, the three key components of Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964). These factors determine an individual’s motivation and directly influence the Effort → Performance → Outcomes model.

Under-Reward Inequity (Felt Negative Inequity)

occurs when an individual perceives that they are receiving less rewards (e.g., salary, promotions, recognition) than they deserve compared to others doing similar work. This perception creates dissatisfaction and can reduce motivation.

Over-Reward Inequity (Felt Positive Inequity)

concept from Equity Theory, which was developed by J. Stacy Adams. It occurs when an individual perceives that they are receiving more rewards (e.g., salary, promotions, recognition) than they deserve compared to others doing similar work.

Equity Sensitivity

Basic Idea: Individuals are not equally concerned about equity.

Some do not have the same preferences

Entitled, Sensitive, and Benevolent

Equity Comparisons

Individual, Internal, External 

Referent Selection

similar individuals, salient individuals, ego-protective referents 

Goal-Setting Theory 

Important Characteristics:

Goal Specificity, Performance Feedback, Goal Difficulty, Goal Acceptance, Time 

SMART Goals

Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-Bound 

limitations of SMART goals

-Can focus attention so narrowly as to reduce organizational citizenship behaviors. 

- Can lead to unethical attempts to achieve goals (especially when coupled with extrinsic rewards). 

Management-By-Objectives (MBO)

Process:

(1) Participative Goal Setting,

(2) Autonomous Implementation,

(3) Feedback on Goal Attainment 

Application of goal-setting is often used with white-collar (professional) employees

Job Design Approaches to Motivation 

The best types of job design are able to accomplish three goals simultaneously:

(1) allows the organization to meet its needs for high performance,

(2) offers a good fit with individuals’ knowledge, skills, and abilities

(3) provides opportunities for individuals to be satisfied with their jobs. 

Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor) 

Scientifically study each part of the job and develop the “one best way”of doing it

(time and motion studies)

• Carefully select and train workers on how to best perform the
task (job specialization)

Motivator-Hygiene Theory or Two-Factor Theory (F. Herzberg) 

Hygiene factors focus on the work context (hygiene factors are associated with the dissatisfaction continuum) 

- Motivator factors focus on job content (motivator factors are associated with the satisfaction continuum) 

Hygiene Factors:

• Work context (linked to dissatisfaction).

Motivator Factors:

Job content (linked to satisfaction)

Horizontal Job Loading:

• Job Enlargement (increasing tasks).

• Job Rotation (shifting between roles).

Vertical Job Loading:

Job Enrichment (increasing responsibility).

Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham)

The purpose is to explain how certain job characteristics influence employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The model suggests that jobs can be designed in a way that enhances intrinsic motivation by improving key characteristics.

Core Job Characteristics in model:

Skill Variety, Task Identity, Task Significance, Autonomy, Feedback.

Psychological States:

Meaningfulness, Responsibility, Knowledge of Results.

Outcomes Job Characteristic models:

• Higher motivation, job satisfaction, and quality; lower absenteeism and turnover.

Key Moderators: Job Characteristic Model

Growth-Need Strength,

KSAs (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities,

Context Satisfaction.

MPS (Motivating Potential Score) =

((SV+TI+TS)/3) A F 

Attribution Theory

is used to explain (to ourselves) why a particular behavior occurred. 

Internal vs. External Attributions 

The most basic or fundamental distinction is between internal and external attributions: 

Internal (Dispositional; caused by the person)

vs.

External (Situational; caused by other factors) 

Co-Variation Model

Consistency, Distinctiveness, & Consensus influence whether we make internal or external attributions. 

Consistency =

same person, similar situation 

Distinctiveness =

same person, other situations 

Consensus =

other people, similar situations

Effect on Attributions: 

High Consistency (Internal), Low Consistency (External) 

High Distinctiveness (External), Low Distinctiveness (Internal) 

High Consensus (External), Low Consensus (Internal) 

Attribution Errors: 

Fundamental Attribution Error and self serving biases

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency to over-estimate the influence of internal factors and under-estimate the influence of external factors when judging the behavior or others 

Self-Serving Bias

the tendency to make internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure when assessing the reasons for our own performance 

Anaclitic Depression Captain Asoh

a kind of melancholy (sadness) that occurs when we are psychologically separated from others upon whom we would normally lean for basic emotional support 

Needs to Express Altruism Captain Asoh

Jerry Harvey (the author) believes that we have inherent needs to engage in altruistic behaviors and that we frequently look to fulfill these needs within the organizations in which we work. 

What happens when organizations have zero-tolerance policies for mistakes? Captain Asoh

-Employees lie and spend time covering up mistakes (which reduces learning and the transfer of knowledge) 

- Employee creativity and innovation are stifled (because people are afraid to make mistakes) 

How (specifically) can organizations incorporate mechanisms that allow for “grace” 

1. Periodically wipe the slate clean (remove incidents from personnel records after a specified period of time) 

2. Create training programs focused on giving and accepting apologizes (i.e., asking and giving forgiveness) 

factors effecting the link between Effort (E → P)

• Skills & Abilities

• Training & Resources

• Role Clarity

• Past Experiences

Factors effecting the link between (P—>O)

• Fair Reward Systems

• Clear Performance Metrics

• Trust in Leadership

Factors effecting Outcomes in relationship link

• Pay raises, promotions, recognition (Extrinsic)

• Sense of achievement, personal growth (Intrinsic)

Levels of Alderfer's ERG Theory of motivation

Levels: Existence, Relatedness, Growth 

Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Motivation

Levels: from bottom to top

Physiological

Safety

Social

Belonging

Esteem

Self-Actualization 

Equity Theory

Basic Premise: Individuals seek fairness in comparison to others.

Perception of Inequity: When inequity is perceived, individuals will take actions to try to restore equity.

Frustration Regression

When the ability to satisfy a higher-order need is blocked, the individual may attempt to more fully satisfy a lower-order need.

Responses to inequity

Behavioral and Psychological responses

Types of inequity

Under reward and Over reward inequity

Problems with Scientific management

 Specialization, simplification, and repetition led to boredom.

 Jobs were not intrinsically motivating.

Choice of Referent

Salience plays a big role in referent selection.
 Individual Referent
 Internal Referent
 External Referent

self actualization

Desire to become the most one can be

Esteem

respect, self esteem, status, recognition, strength, and freedom

Social belonging

Friendship, Intimacy, Family, sense of connection

Safety Needs

Personal security, employment, resources, health, property

Physiological needs

Air, water, food, shelter, sleep, clothing, and reproduction

Core Job Dimensions: Skill variety, Task Identity, Task Significance leads to what physiological state?

Meaningfulness of Work

Core Job dimensions: Autonomy leads to what physiological state?

Responsibility for work outcomes

Core Job Dimensions: Feedback leads to what physiological state?

Knowledge of Work Results

In Maslow’s Hierarchy what are the Higher Order Needs?

(Esteem, Self-Actualization) 

In Maslow’s Hierarchy what are lower level needs?

• Social/Belongingness
  • Safety
  • Physiological