The Science of Human Development

What is the science of human development?

It seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time

The influence of genes that people inherit is known as

Nature

All environmental influences that affect development after conception are known as

Nurture

What is epigenetics?

The study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression.

What is differential susceptibility?

The idea that environmental experiences differ because of particular inherited genes.

In the life-span perspective, what does it mean for development to be multi-directional?

Human characteristics change in every direction over time; development is not linear and includes both gains and losses.

A time when certain things must occur for normal development is known as a

critical period

A _____ is a time when a particular development occurs most easily, though it can still happen later

sensitive period

In Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems approach, what is a cohort?

A group of people born within a few years of one another, who share the same age and historical context.

According to the life-span perspective, development is _____, meaning it can be molded, yet maintains a certain durability of identity.

plastic

Which developmental theory proposes that irrational, unconscious drives, often from childhood, underlie human behavior?

Psychoanalytic theory

What is the focus of behaviorism (learning theory)?

It focuses on observable behavior and describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

What form of learning did B. F. Skinner's work focus on, where an action is followed by a desired or unwanted consequence?

Operant conditioning

What is Albert Bandura's social learning theory?

An extension of behaviorism emphasizing that individuals learn many things through observation and imitation of others (modeling).

According to Piaget's cognitive theory, what is assimilation?

The process where new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, existing ideas.

In Piaget's theory, what is accommodation?

The process where old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences.

How many chromosomes are in a human zygote?

46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.

The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are closely matched in humans are called

autosomes.

The SRY gene, which directs the growth of a penis, is located on which chromosome

The Y chromosome.

What is a zygote?

A new individual formed when two gametes (sperm and ovum) combine.

What is a gamete?

A reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) that consists of 23 chromosomes.

What term describes the entire packet of instructions to make a living organism?

Genome

A variation of a gene, or any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur, is called a(n)

allele

An organism's genetic inheritance, or genetic potential, is its

genotype.

The observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance and personality, are its

phenotype

What epigenetic process involves methyl surrounding each gene, impacting genetic instructions throughout life?

Methylation

What epigenetic process involves methyl surrounding each gene, impacting genetic instructions throughout life?

Methylation

genes are those whose effects add up to influence the phenotype

Additive

In _____, one gene is far more influential than its recessive counterpart, and can completely control the phenotype.

dominant–recessive heredity

twins originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development

Monozygotic (identical)

twins result from the fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm

Dizygotic (fraternal)

What are the three main periods of prenatal development, in order?

The germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period.

The first 14 days of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of implantation, constitute the _____ period.

germinal

During which prenatal period does the primitive streak become the neural tube, forming the brain and spine?

The embryonic period (third through eighth week).

The prenatal period from the ninth week until birth is known as the _____ period

fetal

What is the age of viability for a fetus?

About 22 weeks after conception, when a preterm newborn may survive outside the uterus with medical care

Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality also known as

Trisomy-21

What is a teratogen?

Any agent or condition, including viruses and drugs, that can result in birth defects or death during prenatal development.

What is the threshold effect in relation to teratogens?

A situation where a teratogen is virtually harmless until exposure reaches a certain level, at which point it can cause damage.

What is the definition of low birthweight (LBW)?

A birthweight of less than 2,500 grams (5½ pounds).

A baby born two or more weeks early is classified as

preterm

What does 'small for gestational age' (SGA) mean?

The baby's birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception.

What is the Apgar scale used for?

To provide a quick assessment of a newborn’s health, scoring from 0 to 10, immediately after birth.

What is the average weight of a baby at birth?

7 pounds (3.2 kilograms).

Newborns sleep about _____ hours a day, primarily in active sleep.

15-17

What is head-sparing?

A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth, making it the last part of the body to be damaged.

The rapid early growth of dendrites in an infant's brain is called _____

transient exuberance

What is the process of synaptic pruning?

The withering of unused dendrites, which allows more space between neurons for more complex thinking.

A(n) _____ is a fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses to the dendrites of other neurons.

axon

A(n) _____ is a fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses from other neurons.

dendrite

What is the primary function of the prefrontal cortex?

It specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control.

Which tiny brain structure registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety?

The amygdala

The brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially for locations, is the

hippocampus.

Which sense is the most advanced in a newborn?

Hearing is the most developed sense at birth, allowing newborns to recognize their mother's voice and respond to sounds in their environment.

Which sense is the least mature at birth?

Seeing

What is binocular vision, and when does it typically develop in infants?

The ability to focus both eyes in a coordinated manner to see one image; develops between 2 and 4 months.

The developmental principle that growth proceeds from 'head-down' is known as

cephalocaudal

The developmental principle that growth proceeds from the 'center-out' is known as 

proximodistal

motor skills are physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping.

Gross

motor skills involve small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as grasping a rattle.

Fine

In Piaget's theory, the _____ stage is the first period of cognitive development, where infants use senses and motor skills to learn.

sensorimotor

What is object permanence?

The realization that objects or people continue to exist even when they are no longer in sight.

What is child-directed speech, or 'motherese'?

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants.

The extended repetition of certain syllables, such as 'ba-ba-ba,' that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old is called

babbling

A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought is called a

holophrase

What is the 'naming explosion' in toddler language development?

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

According to Chomsky, what is the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?

A hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

What is the 'Back to Sleep' campaign credited with reducing?

The rate of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).

A condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food, leading to illness, weight loss, or death, is known as

rotein-calorie malnutrition

The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition is called

stunting growth

The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition is called

wasting

When does the social smile, evoked by human faces, typically first appear in infants?

At 6 weeks

Fear in infants typically emerges around _____ months in response to people, things, or situations.

9

What is stranger wariness?

An infant's expression of concern—a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear—when a stranger appears.

An infant's distress when a familiar caregiver leaves is called

separation anxiety

Emotions such as pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are known as _____ emotions because they involve awareness of others

secondary

What is self-awareness in toddlers?

A person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.

Inborn differences between people in emotions, activity, and self-regulation are referred to as

temperament

What is synchrony in infant-caregiver interactions?

A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant.

By age 2, a child's brain weighs _____ percent of what it will in adulthood.

about 75

What is myelination?

The process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.

What structure connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

The corpus callosum.

Maturation of the _____ from ages 2 to 6 leads to more regular sleep, more nuanced emotions, and fewer temper tantrums.

prefrontal cortex

Piaget's cognitive stage for early childhood (ages 2-6), characterized by language and imagination but a lack of logical thought, is the _____ stage.

preoperational

__ is a characteristic of preoperational thought where a child focuses on one idea, excluding all others.

Centration

What is egocentrism in the context of Piaget's theory?

A young child's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective

The preoperational belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive is called

animism

The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same even when its appearance changes is called

conservation

In Vygotsky's theory, what is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

The skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.

What is scaffolding?

Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process

The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned is known as

overimitation.

Vygotsky's term for the internal dialogue that people have when they talk to themselves is

private speech

What is Theory of Mind?

A person's theory of what other people might be thinking

The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize many thoughts, comprised of working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control, is called

executive function

What is fast-mapping in language acquisition?

The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.

The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, such as saying 'foots' instead of 'feet', is called

over regularization

What is pragmatics in language?

The practical use of language, including the ability to adjust communication according to audience and context.

What is the primary goal of child-centered or developmental preschool programs?

They emphasize children's natural inclination to learn through play and self-paced exploration rather than by adult directions.

programs stress academic subjects taught by a teacher to an entire class, with the goal of making children 'ready to learn'.

Teacher directed

The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed is known as

emotional regulation