Unit 1A - AP Psychology

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry INCOMING information from the sensory receptors IN to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry OUTGOING information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons WITHIN the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Myelin Sheath

fatty surround of axon (protects and speed); a lack of this is attributed to multiple sclerosis (MS).

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Reuptake

reabsorption of neurotransmitter by the sending neuron

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control

Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscle; VOLUNTARY movement

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). INVOLUNTARY; Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations; STRESS and SYMPATHETIC

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy; PARACHUTE down and PARASYMPATHETIC

Hormones

chemical messengers in the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues; slow moving

Pituitary Gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion

tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

a technique for revealing oxygenated blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, fMRI shows brain functions AND structure

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heart rate and breathing

Reticular Activating System

a nerve network that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum amd medulla - all senses, but smell are processed here

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include fine motor muscle movement, balance, and procedural memory

Limbic System

doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotions such as fear and aggression

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp,); helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward (pleasure); fight or flight, sexual activity)

Cerebral Cortex

outer layer of cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

Glial Cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport

Frontal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex located just behind the forehead; involved in speaking (linguistic processing) and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements, higher-order thinking; executive functioning

Parietal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex located at back crown of the head (top of the head toward the rear); received sensory input for touch and body position; controls lots of association areas which process and organize information

Occipital Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex located at the rear of the head (back), includes areas that receive information from visual fields; control visual information processing

Temporal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex located on the sides of the brain roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear; controls auditory and linguistic processing

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements (skeletal movements)

Somatosensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations; processes touch sensitivity

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's Area (impairing speaking) or Wernicke's Area (impairing understanding)

Broca's Area

controls language expression - a brain area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech; produces speech

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception - a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, that is involved in language comprehension and expression; speech comprehension

Brain Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reogranizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; severed in split-brain patients

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Refractory Period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent (future) action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

All-or-Nothing Principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. Fires after reaching threshold

Agonists

increases a neurotransmitter's action (encourages neural firing) by mimicking the neurotransmitter or blocking reuptake at the presnynaptic neuron

Antagonist

decreases a neurotransmitter's action (discourages neural firing) by inhibiting or blocking a neurotransmitter's action at the receptor site on the dendrite

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories of facts (semantic memory) and events (episodic memory)

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter associated with learning and memory; triggers muscle contraction.

Adoption Study

A research design that investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or psychological disorder by comparing the similarities of biological parent-child pairs with those of adoptive parent-child pairs.

Adrenaline

A hormone that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing a surge of energy to power our fight-or-flight response; produced by adrenal glands

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Each hemisphere is mainly responsible for the information of the opposite side of the body.

Cortex Specialization

The tendency for one area of the brain to carry out specific brain activities. Even though both sides of the brain are almost identical, one hemisphere primarily carries out some functions over others (hemispheric specialization)

Depolarization

The process leading up to the height of an action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning; involved in brain's pleasure and reward system.

Eugenics

A much-criticized nineteenth-century movement that proposed measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce

Evolutionary Psychology

Views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges; explains behavior and cognitive processes as a means of natural selection and survival

Excitatory

The function of a neurotransmitter which results in a greater likelihood of an action potential.

Executive Function

Higher-level cognitive processes of planning, decision-making, problem-solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, effortful and persistent goal pursuit, inhibition of competing impulses, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution. Associated with prefrontal cortex in frontal lobe

Family Study

Research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease.

GABA

Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter; associated with daily sleep-wake cycles.

Genetic Predisposition

A tendency for certain traits to be inherited, including physical and mental conditions and disorders.

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.

Heredity

The transmission of traits from parents to their offspring.

Higher-Order Thinking

Cognitive processes that involve critical thinking, problem-solving, analysis, evaluation, and creativity. It goes beyond rote memorization or simple recall of information and requires individuals to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate knowledge to solve complex problems and make informed decisions. Associated with frontal lobe

Inhibitory

The function of a naturally occuring chemical which results in a reduced likelihood of an action potential.

Left Hemisphere

The part of the brain that receives somatosensory signals from and controls muscles on right side of body, controls the facial muscles that allow us to produce speech, and enables us to understand spoken word. Left = language

Leptin

A hunger-suppressing hormone.

Linguistic Processing

The cognitive activities involved in understanding and producing language. It encompasses various processes such as perceiving speech sounds, comprehending word meanings, constructing grammatically correct sentences, and conveying thoughts through speech or writing.

Melatonin

A hormone produced mainly by the pineal gland that is implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease due to the degeneration of the myelin sheath in which communication to muscles and brain regions slow, resulting in diminished muscle control and sometimes impaired cognition.

Myasthenia Gravis

A neuromuscular disease in which the muscles cannot contract, resulting in muscle weakness, difficulties with muscle control, or paralysis. A progressive autoimmune disease in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, hindering neural transmission at neuromuscular junctions.

Natural Selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations.

Nature

The innate, presumably genetically determined, characteristics and behaviors of an individual. In psychology, the characteristics most often and traditionally associated with nature are temperament and personality.

Neural Transmission

The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon, releasing neurotransmitters across the synaptic space to a receiving neuron.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal (fight or flight). An undersupply can lead to a depressed mood.

Nurture

The totality of environmental factors that influence the development and behavior of a person, particularly sociocultural and ecological factors such as family attributes, parental child-rearing practices, and economic status.

Oxytocin

A hormone which enables orgasm, and in a pregnant person, labor contractions and milk flow while nursing. Associated with bonding

Prefrontal Cortex

Located at the very front of the brain, this part functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors; its development in humans parallels improvement in cognitive control and behavioral inhibition as an individual grows into adulthood.

Reflex Arc

A neural circuit that is involved in a self-regulated response between the central and peripheral nervous systems. A direct route is sensory neuron, to interneuron in spinal cord, to motor neurons

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it's not being stimulated or sending signals.

Reuptake Inhibitor

Substance that interferes with the transport of released neurotransmitter molecules back into the presynaptic terminal, boosting the effects of that neurotransmitter.

Reward Center

Any of various areas of the brain (including areas of the hypothalamus and limbic system) that have been implicated in producing pleasure.

Right Hemisphere

The part of the brain that receives somatosensory signals from and controls muscles on left side of body, enables us to recognize faces and the emotion in facial expressions, as well as our ability to maniupulate 2-D and 3-D environments.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. Low levels have been implicated in depression

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and immune response.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Twin Study

Research with the purpose of assessing the relative contributions of heredity and environment to some attribute. Characteristics of identical and fraternal twins and comparing twins of both types who have been reared together or reared apart.

Gene

A part of DNA or RNA that contains chemical information needed to make a particular protein. They are the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

Monozygotic Twin

identical twins who develop from 1 egg and share 100% of genes

Dizyogotic Twins

fraternal twins who develop from 2 eggs and share 50% of genes

Hemisphere

Half of the brain

Addiction

A state of psychological or physical dependence (or both) on the use of alcohol or other drugs.

Alcohol

A depressant that disrupts memory formation during REM sleep and lowers inhibition.

Caffeine

A stimulant which can increase alertness and wakefulness but also produce anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses.

Cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant which produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria. Blocks dopamine reuptake.

Depressant

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Heroin

As a nervous system depressant, this opioid can produce a rush of euphoria, confidence, and energy, as well as cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, and a depressive crash.