unread,GERARD & BAL, "Labour Migration in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Poor and Uneven Governance"GERARD & BAL, "Labour Migration in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Poor and Uneven Governance"

What role does labour migration play in Southeast Asia according to Gerard and Bal

Labour migration is central to economic development in Southeast Asia. It supplies both high wage and low wage workers who sustain growth and competitiveness. It also shapes welfare and employment strategies in sending states

What is meant by a bifurcated labour migration system

A bifurcated system separates high wage migrants from low wage migrants. High wage migrants receive rights and stability while low wage migrants face precarity and exploitation

Why do the authors say labour migration is poorly and unevenly governed

Governance differs by country sector and wage level. States prioritize economic growth and elite interests over migrant protection

What is ASEAN

ASEAN is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. It is a regional organization that coordinates economic political and social cooperation including migration

Where do most international migrants in ASEAN states come from

Most migrants come from other ASEAN countries. Intra regional migration is the dominant pattern

Which countries host most ASEAN migrants

Malaysia Singapore and Thailand host nearly all ASEAN migrants. These states are the main labour receiving countries

What does it mean that labour migration is highly gendered

Men and women are concentrated in different types of work. Women dominate domestic care and service work while men dominate construction manufacturing and agriculture

Why are migrant domestic workers especially vulnerable

They face discrimination as women and as migrants. Domestic work is isolated and weakly regulated which increases abuse

What are the main migration corridors in Southeast Asia

Key corridors include Indonesia to Malaysia and Myanmar Cambodia and Laos to Thailand. These routes account for most migrant movement

What major contributions do migrant workers make in destination countries

Migrant workers build infrastructure clean cities and sustain industries. Entire sectors depend on their labour

What are remittances

Remittances are money sent home by migrant workers. They support families and national economies

Why are remittances important for sending countries

They provide foreign exchange and reduce poverty. In some states they form a major share of national income

Why do Gerard and Bal challenge supply and demand explanations of migration

They argue migration is politically produced. States rely on migration instead of welfare or job creation

What does in lieu of mean in the authors argument

It means migration replaces alternative policies. States choose migration instead of addressing inequality

How do wage gaps drive migration in Southeast Asia

Large wage differences push workers to migrate. Higher income countries attract labour from poorer states

How does industrial restructuring increase demand for migrant labour

Labour intensive sectors remain even as economies modernize. Migrants provide cheap flexible labour to sustain them

How does neoliberal land policy contribute to migration

Land commercialization displaces small farmers. This creates surplus labour with few livelihood options

What is relative surplus labour

It refers to workers excluded from stable employment. This surplus is produced by policy not population growth

What are migration infrastructures

They include recruiters brokers networks and transport systems. These structures actively organize migration flows

Why have recruitment brokers become powerful

Public employment services declined. Private recruiters profit while shifting risks onto migrants

What is a revolving door migration policy

Low wage migrants are treated as temporary workers. They must leave after contracts despite permanent demand

How does Singapore govern low wage migration

Singapore uses permits levies and strict regulation. The state tightly manages labour supply

How does Thailand govern low wage migration

Thailand uses border controls raids and regularization. Governance is flexible and reactive

Why does undocumented migration persist in Thailand and Malaysia

Employers benefit from cheap controllable labour. States tolerate illegality to support industry

What legal limits do low wage migrants face

They lack family reunification job mobility and political rights. These limits increase vulnerability

Why is deportability central to migrant control

Deportation threats silence resistance. Employers and states retain power over workers

Why are migrant workers excluded from unions

Labour organizing is restricted or suppressed. This prevents collective action

How do elites benefit from migrant labour governance

Cheap labour supports key industries and political coalitions. It helps elites maintain power

Why is Singapores migrant workforce mostly documented

Documentation allows strict state control. Migrants support infrastructure and suppress labour unrest

How do migrant workers benefit the Singapore state

They enable rapid development and growth. This strengthens political legitimacy

Why do the Philippines and Indonesia export labour

They lack sufficient jobs and welfare systems. Labour export reduces pressure and earns remittances

How does the Philippines govern labour export

It uses strong institutions and recruitment controls. The state promotes migration while offering protection

Why has the Philippines provided more protections than Indonesia

Elite interests are not tied to recruitment profits. Civil society pressure has been effective

Why has Indonesia struggled to protect migrants

Recruiters are tied to state officials through patronage. These alliances block reform

How does decentralization affect Indonesian migration governance

Local elites influence enforcement. Recruiters exploit clientelist relationships

What abuses do migrant workers commonly face

They experience debt bondage wage theft unsafe work and violence. Governance structures enable these harms

How does governance contribute to migrant suffering

Policies prioritize control and deployment. Rights and welfare are secondary

How do NGOs respond to migrant exploitation

They provide legal aid shelter and advocacy. They document abuse to push reform

How do migrants themselves resist exploitation

They organize strikes protests and riots. Resistance occurs despite repression

How do receiving states respond to migrant unrest

They use repression and limited reforms. The goal is control not empowerment

What was Thailands 2017 migrant decree

It imposed harsh penalties on undocumented workers. This caused mass worker departures

Why did Thailand enact harsh migration reforms

International pressure over trafficking increased. The military sought global legitimacy

How did employers react to Thailands reforms

They opposed losing cheap labour. Longstanding arrangements were disrupted

What happened in Malaysia regarding migrant levies

Employers were required to pay levies. Employers protested strongly

Why did Malaysian reforms not improve migrant rights

The state continued raids and deportations. Protection was not prioritized

Why has Singapore faced less migrant unrest

The party state tightly controls civil society. Technocratic management limits collective action

What limited reforms has Singapore enacted

It banned kickbacks and mandated rest days. These resolve individual disputes only

Why do states recruit high wage migrants

They fill skill shortages raise capital and support development goals. High wage migrants are seen as assets

How does Singapore structure high wage migration

Rights increase with salary level. Higher income grants family reunification and residency

What role do foreign students play in Singapores migration strategy

Students are trained and retained as skilled workers. Education supports long term labour supply

Why has high wage migration caused backlash in Singapore

Population growth strained housing transport and jobs. Citizens felt displaced

How did Singapore respond to public opposition

It slowed migration and increased social spending. Consultation was used to depoliticize conflict

How does Malaysia attract high wage migrants

It eases expatriate policies and residency access. The goal is investment and competitiveness

Why does Malaysia limit foreign students staying after graduation

To protect ethnic Malay affirmative action. Students are encouraged to leave

What are Mutual Recognition Arrangements

They recognize professional qualifications across ASEAN. Outcomes vary by sectoral interest

Why are MRAs uneven across professions

Professional bodies protect their own interests. Some support mobility while others restrict it

What is the ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework

It compares qualifications across countries. Implementation depends on national interests

What is the first key conclusion of the chapter

Migration is produced by historical state and economic change. It is not natural or inevitable

What is the second key conclusion

Migration governance reflects elite and employer interests. Worker rights are secondary

What is the third key conclusion

Conflicts shape uneven outcomes across states. Reforms manage migration rather than empower workers