intro to psych - ch 7

encoding

forming a neural representation

storage

developing a “durable” representation

retrieval

utilization of information

failure of memory due to…

breakdown of encoding, storage, retrieval 

model of memory

info must pass through discrete stages via attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval

role of attention 

don’t attend to something, you’ll never go from sensory store to short term memory 

selective attention

selection of input

filtering of info

selective; some things get through like your name

cocktail party effect 

filtering of info 

the 3 systems for memory

sensory, short term, long term

how do systems for memory differ?

in terms of span and duration

sensory memory 

brief preservation of info in original sensory form; auditory and visual memory

auditory or echoic lasts…

750-1000 ms

visual or iconic lasts…

250 ms

visual scenes…

stay relatively unchanged since they don’t need as much time to remember something

George sperling

classic experiment on visual sensory store

Whole Report experiment 

Sterling found that exposure time for stimulus is so small that items can’t be rehearsed 

Partial Report

found that memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought

time delay

the longer the delay, the greater the memory because visual memory only lasts about 250 ms

short term memory is also known as ?

working memory 

STM

limited capacity and duration

George Miller found what regarding STM?

our STM capacity is around 5-9

chunking 

grouping similar stimuli for storage as a single unit 

STM duration is around?

20 seconds with out rehearsal 

rehearsal

process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the info

Brown Peterson task

showed that you could manipulate the info in the STM which showed that this part of memory is working

STM is not limited to…

phonemic ending or sound codes 

loss of info in the STM…

not just due to decay but also interference

Baddeley’s model of working memory

phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, central executive, episodic buffer

phonological loop contains…

phonological stores that store info and articulatory control process like rehearsal 

visuo-spacial sketchpad contains?

visual cache that stores info and inner scribe that is used for rehearsal

episodic buffer

allows system to bind visa-spatial sketchpad and phonological codes

central executive 

delegates tasks to visuospatial and phonological memory and episodic buffer 

long term memory has?

unlimited capacity; things are buried deep within memory and can become inaccessible

William James

primary vs secondary memory

what we used to think about flashbulb memories 

memories more associated emotionally-assailant events, didn’t deteriorate, more accurate  

primacy effect

better recall at beginning and occurs with LTM rehearsal

recency effect

better recall at end/more recent events and occurs with the STM

with deeper processing comes…

longer lasting memory codes 

Craik and Lockhart

incoming info processed at different levels

structural level

shallow and emphasizes physical

phonemic level 

intermediate and emphasizes sound 

semantic level

deep and emphasizes the meaning of verbal input

retention

proportion of material retained and includes recall, recognition, relearning

forgetting 

is a lapse in memory 

recall

person must retrieve info using effort, can be cued or uncued

recognition

identifying an item amongst other choices like a multiple choice test

relearning 

person shows how much time and effort is saved when learning material for a second time 

learning usually requires…

rehearsal or conscious repetition

Ebbinghaus

forgetting curve and rehearsal

ineffective coding 

distracted or not paying attention 

decay theory

info leaves as time passes, used to think this was the only thing to blame for forgetting

interference theory

what occurs as time passes and interrupts memory

proactive interference 

old learning interferes with new learning 

retroactive learning

new learning interferes with old learning

interference theory found…

that switching the category of info being learned causes a release of proactive interference

misinformation effect 

Loftus found that incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of an event is possible; we can tap into our memories and filter or fill in missing pieces of info to make our recall more coherent 

encoding specificity

effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it matches to the way we encoded the info

context-dependent learning

external context like location

state-dependent learning 

internal state like mood

transfer appropriate processing theory says

the initial processing of info is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention and retrieval is easier

ways to organize memory

clustering and hierarchy of info, semantic networks, schemes/scripts

semantic networks 

complex web of semantic associations that link items in memory which leads to retrieval of one item that activates the retrieval of others as well 

schemes

organized knowledge structures or mental maps that provide a frame of reference for new situations

script

schema for a specific event

elaboration 

linking stimulus to other info at time of coding 

self-referent encoding

making info personally meaningful

visual imagery

creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered that works better for concrete objects not abstract ideas

mnemonics 

using word imagery to aid memory 

method of loci

form a location you know really well and pair it with what you’re trying to know

link method

forming mental images and remembering them by linking them together

implicit memory 

occurs when someone is unable to make new memories that are declarative but can form new procedural memories 

declarative memory system

factual info

non declarative info

actions, perceptual motor skills, conditioned reflexes, emotional memories

semantic memory systems 

general knowledge, stored undated 

episodic memory systems

dated recollections of personal experiences

retrospective memory systems

remembering events from the past

prospective memory systems 

remembering to perform actions in the future