Mesopotamia: Early Societies and Empires

Flashcards covering key vocabulary, empires, social structures, and cultural achievements of early Mesopotamian societies from 3000-2000 B.C.E., including Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian periods.

Mesopotamia

Refers to the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq, a region where ancient civilizations were established between 3000-2000 B.C.E.

States

Political authorities established by settled agricultural peoples throughout Mesopotamia in search of order to resolve disputes within and between settlements.

Empires

Created when some states extended their power and enhanced security by imposing rule on neighboring lands.

Social Classes (Mesopotamia)

Emergent in urban Mesopotamian society due to specialized labor, leading to increasingly complex social and economic structures.

Specialized Labor

Fostered by cities in Mesopotamia, leading to efficient production of high-quality goods and stimulating trade.

Cultural Traditions (Mesopotamia)

Included the invention of a system of writing and organized religions.

Ancient Hebrews

Migrants attracted by Mesopotamian prosperity who settled in the region's cities and adopted Mesopotamian ways.

Phoenicians

Merchants who embraced Mesopotamian society and built extensive maritime trade networks linking southwest Asia with the Mediterranean basin.

Indo-European Peoples

Some interacted directly with Mesopotamian contemporaries, while others adopted Mesopotamian inventions like wheels and metallurgy for extensive migrations across Eurasia.

Sumer

The southern half of Mesopotamia where human population increased rapidly, and Sumerians were the dominant people by 3000 B.C.E.

Sumerians

People who, by about 5000 B.C.E., constructed elaborate irrigation networks and were the dominant people of Mesopotamia by 3000 B.C.E.

Semitic Peoples

Nomadic herders (e.g., Akkadian, Aramaic, Hebrew, Phoenician speakers) who migrated to Mesopotamia from Arabian/Syrian deserts, intermarried with Sumerians, and adapted to Sumerian ways.

Sumerian Cities

The world's first cities, built around 4000 B.C.E., serving as centers of political, military, economic, and cultural authority.

City-States

Sumerian cities that controlled public life within their walls, extended authority to neighboring territories, and oversaw surrounding agricultural regions.

Ziggurats

Distinctive stepped pyramids in Sumerian cities that housed temples and altars to the principal local deity.

Sumerian Kings (Lugals)

Claimed absolute authority within their realms by 3000 B.C.E., usually ruling in cooperation with local nobles.

Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)

The first creator of empire in Mesopotamia, a talented administrator and warrior who conquered Sumerian city-states and placed them under his governors.

Akkadian Empire

Sargon's empire, which at its height embraced all of Mesopotamia and extended to the Mediterranean and Black Sea, but collapsed around 2150 B.C.E.

Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.)

The most prominent Babylonian conqueror, 'king of the four quarters of the world,' who established the Babylonian empire and improved administrative techniques through centralized bureaucratic rule and regular taxation.

Babylonian Empire

Dominated Mesopotamia until about 1600 B.C.E. under Hammurabi, known for its centralized rule and extensive law code.

Hammurabi's Laws

An extensive and complete Mesopotamian law code establishing high standards of behavior and stern punishments, based on the principle of lex talionis.

Lex Talionis

A Latin phrase meaning 'the law of retaliation,' a principle in Hammurabi's code where offenders suffered punishments resembling their violations, with adjustments for social standing.

Hittites

Indo-European-speaking people who built a powerful empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and caused the collapse of the Babylonian empire around 1595 B.C.E.

Assyrians

A hardy people from northern Mesopotamia who built a compact state and flourishing cities (Assur, Nineveh) in the Tigris River valley, known for their powerful army.

Assyrian Army

A powerful and intimidating military force organized into standardized units with professional officers, utilizing infantry, cavalry, and light, swift, horse-drawn chariots borrowed from the Hittites.

Epic of Gilgamesh

The oldest surviving epic poem in history, dating from about 2500 B.C.E., preserved in King Assurbanipal's library, which includes a flood story.

Assyrian Empire

At its high point (8th-7th centuries B.C.E.), it embraced Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, much of Anatolia, and most of Egypt, but collapsed in 612 B.C.E. due to internal unrest and external assault.

King Assurbanipal (668-627 B.C.E.)

An Assyrian king whose long reign coincided with the high tide of Assyrian domination, known for styling himself 'king of Assyria' and 'king of the universe,' and maintaining a vast library at Nineveh.

Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.)

King of the New Babylonian Empire who lavished wealth and resources on his capital city, Babylon, responsible for massive constructions and reputedly the Hanging Gardens.

New Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Empire)

Dominated Mesopotamia for half a century (600-550 B.C.E.) under Nebuchadnezzar, known for a luxurious capital before being absorbed by foreign conquerors.

Bronze Metallurgy

A significant technological development around 4000 B.C.E. where copper was alloyed with tin to create a harder, stronger metal for weapons and tools.

Iron Metallurgy

Began around 1000 B.C.E., with Hittite craftsmen developing techniques for strong iron tools and weapons around 1300 B.C.E.; became the metal of choice due to its wider availability and lower cost.

The Wheel

First used around 3500 B.C.E. and incorporated into wheeled carts by Sumerians by 3000 B.C.E., greatly facilitating long-distance hauling of heavy loads.

Sumerian Shipbuilding

By 3500 B.C.E., Sumerians built watercraft for Persian Gulf ventures, and by 2300 B.C.E., traded regularly with Harappan society in the Indus River valley.

Mesopotamian Trade Networks

Extensive links during the Babylonian empire for importing silver, cedar wood, copper, gold, tin, lapis lazuli, and semiprecious stones from various distant regions.

Stratified Patriarchal Society

Mesopotamian society characterized by clearly defined social classes and authority primarily vested in adult men.

Ruling Classes (Mesopotamian)

Consisted of kings and nobles who gained positions through valor and military success, often mythically portrayed as divine offspring.

Temple Communities

Central to Mesopotamian society, housing priests and priestesses who ensured good fortune, owned land, maintained workshops, functioned as banks, and provided community services.

Free Commoners

Included peasant cultivators in the countryside and urban builders, craftsmen, or professionals, who paid taxes and provided labor for public projects.

Dependent Clients

Possessed no property and typically worked as agricultural laborers on estates owned by the king, nobles, or temple communities, owing a portion of their production.

Slavery (Mesopotamia)

Slaves were sourced from prisoners of war, convicted criminals, and indebted individuals; mostly domestic servants, some worked in agriculture or could earn freedom through trade.

Patriarchal Society

Mesopotamian society where authority over public and private affairs was vested in adult men, who made family decisions and dominated public life.

Women's Roles (Mesopotamia)

Despite subordinate legal status, women could advise kings, wield power as high priestesses, obtain education as scribes, or pursue careers as midwives.