FSU BSC 2085; Anatomy and Physiology 1; exam 1

Anatomy

study of structure

Physiology

study of function

Is Anatomy and physiology complementary?

Anatomy and physiology are complementary and never entirely separable

How does A&P combine?

Physiology provides meaning to anatomy; Anatomy is what makes physiology possible/Form determines function

Terminologia Anatomica

standardized anatomical vocabulary in the publication

Inspection

•look at appearance

Palpation

feeling a structure with the hands

Auscultation

listening to sounds produced by body

Percussion

tap on the body, feel for resistance, and listen to emitted sound for abnormalities

Dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships; use a cadaver, a dead human body; ex: exploratory surgery

Comparative anatomy

study (for example, dissection) of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution; ex: comparison of two different species and making it one

Exploratory surgery

opening the living body to see what is wrong; now replaced by medical imaging to view inside without surgery

Radiology

branch of medicine specializing in imaging

Gross anatomy

structures visible with the naked eye

Subdivisions of gross anatomy

Surface anatomy,

Regional anatomy, Systemic anatomy, Clinical anatomy

Surface anatomy

exterior features; ex. skin

Regional anatomy

body areas

Systemic anatomy

organ systems

Clinical anatomy

medical specialties (pathological anatomy - changes that occur during illness, radiographic anatomy - structures seen using specialized imaging techniques)

Developmental anatomy

from conception to death, includes embryology

Subdisciplines of anatomy

Microscopic anatomy

Microscopic anatomy Subdivisions

Cytology, Histology, Histopathology

Microscopic anatomy

requires the aid of a microscope

Cytology

study of structure and function of cells; fine detail (ultrastructure) may be resolved using an electron microscope; can't resolve organelles that are really small

Histology

examination of tissues with microscope

Histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Physiology Subdisciplines

Neurophysiology, Endocrinology, Systemic physiology, Pathophysiology

Neurophysiology

physiology of nervous system

Endocrinology

physiology of hormones; ex: intergin system

Systemic physiology

functions of an organ system

Pathophysiology

mechanisms of disease

Comparative physiology

•Study of different species to learn about body functions

•Basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures; similar to comparative anatamy

The Body's Structural Hierarchy

organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, macromolecule, molecule, atom

Organism

a single, complete individual

Organ system

group of organs with a unique collective function; for example: circulation, respiration, digestion

Organ

structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function;

An organ has defined anatomical boundaries; can have organs within organs

Tissue CC

similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function

Cell

smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life

Organelle

structure within a cell that carry out a function

Molecule

particle composed of two or more atoms; Largest molecules (proteins, fats, DNA) called macromolecules

Atom

smallest particle with unique chemical identity

Is everyone alike?

No two humans are exactly alike; even identical twins have differences

•Anatomy books show most common organization of structures

•Some individuals lack certain muscles (for example, palmaris longus)

•Some individuals have an atypical number of vertebrae

•Some individuals have an atypical number of certain organs (for example, kidneys)

identical twins

occur when an oocyte cell separates into 2 separate cluster cells

situs inversus

left-right reversal of organ placement

Physiological Variation

Physiology is even more variable than anatomy

•Variations in sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics and environment

Typical physiological values

•Reference man: 22 years old, 154 lb, light physical activity, consumes 2,800 kcal/day

•Reference woman: same as man except 128 lb and 2,000 kcal/day

What happens when references are ignored?

•Failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication of elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on men

Homeostasis

the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Claude Bernard

noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions (for example, temperature)

Walter Cannon

coined the term homeostasis

Negative feedback

allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point; The body senses a change and "negates" or reverses it

Dynamic

always changing

Static

Stays still

What happens when homeostasis is lost?

Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

What happens to the body to get back to homeostasis?

Internal conditions fluctuate within a limited range; Dynamic equilibrium around a set point

feedback loops

feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them

vasodilation

skin blood vessels dilate and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)

vasoconstriction

skin blood vessels constrict and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)

Example of homeostasis (baroreflex)

•Rise from bed, blood drains from head and blood pressure falls in this region

•Detected by baroreceptors that transmit signals to cardiac center of brainstem

Cardiac center

transmits signals to heart to increase heart rate, raising blood pressure and restoring homeostasis

Receptor

structure that senses change in the body (for example, the baroreceptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory information, "makes a decision," and directs the response (for example, cardiac center of the brainstem)

Effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (for example, the heart)

Homeostatic Compensation for a Postural Change in Blood Pressure

Person rises from bed; Blood drains from upper body, creating homeostatic imbalance; Receptor- Baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure; integrating center; effector- heartbeat accelerates in response to cardiac center; blood pressure raises to normal, homeostasis is restored

Positive feedback

a self-amplifying cycle

What happens during a positive feedback loop?

•Leads to greater change in the same direction, as opposed to the corrective action of negative feedback

•Normal way of producing rapid changes

•Can sometimes be dangerous

Less common; signal grows; increased stimuli

Example of positive feedback loop

childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals, fever

Positive Feedback in Childbirth

1) head of fetus pushes against cervix 2) nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain

3) Brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin

4) Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus toward cervix

Gradient

difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

Movement of Gradient

•Blood flows down a pressure gradient, from a place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure

•Chemicals flow down a concentration gradient

•Charged particles flow down a electrical gradient

•Heat flows down a thermal gradient

Electrochemical gradient

combination of concentration, electrical gradients

Does the Gradient move up?

•Movement in the opposite direction is up the gradient and requires spending metabolic energy; different proteins

Up the gradient

requires energy

Down the gradient

no energy

The History of Anatomical Terminology

About 90% of our current medical terms come from 1,200 Greek and Latin roots reflecting ancient past

WHat happened during the Renaissance?

The Renaissance brought progress but confusion

Same structures named differently in varied countries

Some structures named after people

eponyms

structures named after people

When were terms made universal?

In 1895, anatomists established worldwide naming conventions

•Rejected eponyms; used unique Latin names

•Terminologia Anatomica (TA) provides standard international anatomical terms

•Provided Latin names and English equivalents

•In 1998, approved by anatomists in over 50 countries

Scientific term wording

•One root (stem) with core meaning

•Combining vowels join roots into a word

•Prefix and/or suffix may modify meaning of root word

Acronyms

pronounceable words formed from first letter, or first few letters, of series of words

Radiography (X-rays)

•Over half of all medical imaging

•Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body; dense tissue appears white- ex: bone

•Radiopaque substances can be injected or swallowed to fill hollow structures, for example, blood vessels, intestinal tract

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)

useful for showing blockages and blood flow

Computed tomography (CT scan)

•Formerly called a CAT scan

•Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis

•Slice-type image

•Increased sharpness of image

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

•Superior quality to CT scan and no X-ray exposure

•Best for soft tissue

•Functional MRI (fMRI) shows real time changes in the brain

Positron emission tomography (PET)

•Assesses metabolic state of tissue

•Inject radioactively labeled glucose

•Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment

•Damaged tissues appear dark

Sonography

•Second oldest and second most widely used

•High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs

•Avoids harmful X-rays so good for obstetrics

•Image not very sharp

anatomical position

standing upright, facing towards you with their arms down and palms facing anterior (towards you)

Supine

body is lying flat with the stomach and face superior (Ex: Supine for sit-ups)

Prone

body is lying flat with the stomach and face inferior (Ex. Prone for push-ups)

Frontal (coronal) plane

divides body into anterior and posterior portions.

Sagittal plane

divides body into left and right portions.

Midsagittal plane

lies in the middle

Parasagittal plane

offset from the middle

Transverse plane

divides body into superior and inferior portions

Quadrants and Regions of the Abdomen

look at ipad

Robert Hooke

•Made many improvements to compound microscope

•First to see and name "cells"

•Published first comprehensive book of microscopy (Micrographia) in 1665

Robert Hooke cell theory

1.Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals

2.All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells

3.Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions

4.Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Cell Shapes and Sizes

Most human cells are about 10 to 15 μm in diameter

1 micrometer (μm), or micron

one-millionth of a meter or one-thousandth of a millimeter

Egg cells (very large)

100 μm diameter