Chapter 1 - HDFS

Child development

The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues throughout life.

Developmental science

The field that seeks to understand and explain how people change and remain stable over time.

Biological processes

Changes in physical nature including genes, brain development, height, weight, motor skills, and hormones.

Cognitive processes

Changes in thought, intelligence, memory, language, attention, reasoning, and problem solving.

Socioemotional processes

Changes in emotions, personality, relationships, and social interactions.

Biological + cognitive + socioemotional processes

Three interconnected areas that influence one another.

Nature

The influence of heredity and biological factors on development.

Nurture

The influence of environmental experiences on development.

Nature-nurture issue

The debate over how much development is influenced by heredity versus environment.

Continuity

The idea that development occurs gradually and continuously.

Discontinuity

The idea that development occurs in distinct stages.

Sigmund Freud

Theorist who emphasized unconscious motivations and early childhood experiences.

Psychoanalytic theory

Theory stating that development is primarily influenced by unconscious forces and early experiences.

Psychosexual development

Freud's theory that development occurs through five stages where different body parts become the primary source of pleasure.

Oral stage

Birth-1 year; pleasure centers on the mouth through sucking, eating, and biting.

Anal stage

1-3 years; pleasure centers on bowel and bladder elimination; toilet training is important.

Phallic stage

3-6 years; pleasure centers on the genitals and includes Freud's Oedipus complex.

Latency stage

6 years-puberty; sexual impulses are relatively dormant while children focus on school, friends, and skills.

Genital stage

Puberty onward; sexual impulses become mature and individuals develop mature relationships.

Oedipus complex

Freud's idea that during the phallic stage, boys develop an unconscious attraction toward their mother and rivalry with their father.

Id

The unconscious part of personality focused on immediate pleasure and gratification.

Ego

The part of personality that deals with reality and balances the id and superego.

Superego

The part of personality representing morals, values, and conscience.

Erik Erikson

Theorist who emphasized social relationships and cultural influences throughout development.

Psychosocial theory

Theory that development involves resolving conflicts between opposing tendencies at different stages of life.

Psychosocial crisis

A conflict between two opposing tendencies that must be resolved at each stage.

Trust vs. mistrust

Birth-1 year; infants learn whether caregivers and the world are reliable and safe.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

1-3 years; children develop independence and a sense of control.

Initiative vs. guilt

3-6 years; children develop the ability to initiate activities and pursue goals.

Industry vs. inferiority

6 years-puberty; children develop competence through school, work, and skills.

Identity vs. role confusion

Adolescence; individuals explore who they are, their values, goals, and future roles.

Intimacy vs. isolation

Young adulthood; developing close and meaningful relationships.

Generativity vs. stagnation

Middle adulthood; contributing to society and helping the next generation.

Integrity vs. despair

Late adulthood; reflecting on one's life with fulfillment versus regret.

Jean Piaget

Theorist who emphasized how children actively construct knowledge through interactions with their environment.

Cognitive development theory

Theory describing how children's thinking changes through four stages.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing an existing schema to fit new information.

Equilibration

The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation.

Sensorimotor stage

Birth-2 years; infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object permanence

Understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage

2-7 years; children develop symbolic thought but have difficulty with logical operations.

Symbolic function

The ability to use symbols such as words, images, and objects to represent something else.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing the world from another person's perspective.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.

Concrete operational stage

7-11 years; children become capable of logical reasoning about concrete situations.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions or operations can be reversed.

Formal operational stage

About 11 years and older; ability to think abstractly, hypothetically, and logically.

Lev Vygotsky

Theorist who emphasized that children's cognitive development is influenced by social interaction and culture.

Sociocultural theory

Theory that development is shaped by social interactions, cultural tools, and communication with others.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

The range between what a child can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish with assistance.

Scaffolding

Temporary support from a more knowledgeable person that helps a child complete a task.

More knowledgeable other

Someone with greater knowledge or skill who helps a child learn.

Behaviorism

Theory emphasizing that behavior can be studied through observable actions and environmental influences.

John B. Watson

Major behaviorist who emphasized the role of the environment in shaping behavior.

Classical conditioning

Learning in which an organism associates two stimuli.

Ivan Pavlov

Researcher famous for demonstrating classical conditioning with dogs.

B. F. Skinner

Theorist associated with operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.

Albert Bandura

Theorist who emphasized learning through observing and imitating others.

Social cognitive theory

Theory emphasizing that behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.

Observational learning

Learning by watching another person's behavior.

Modeling

Imitating the behavior of another person.

Reciprocal determinism

The idea that behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.

Self-efficacy

A person's belief that they can successfully perform a behavior or accomplish a task.

John Bowlby

Theorist who emphasized the importance of early emotional attachment between infants and caregivers.

Attachment

A strong emotional bond between a person and a caregiver.

Secure base

A caregiver who provides security, allowing a child to explore the environment.

Mary Ainsworth

Researcher who studied infant attachment using the Strange Situation.

Strange Situation

A laboratory procedure used to observe infant attachment through separations and reunions with caregivers.

Secure attachment

The child explores using the caregiver as a secure base, becomes upset when the caregiver leaves, and is comforted when the caregiver returns.

Insecure avoidant attachment

The child may show little distress when the caregiver leaves and may avoid the caregiver upon return.

Insecure resistant/ambivalent attachment

The child becomes highly distressed and may seek and resist contact with the caregiver.

Disorganized attachment

The child displays inconsistent, confused, or contradictory behaviors toward the caregiver.

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Theorist who emphasized that development occurs within multiple environmental systems.

Ecological systems theory

Theory that development is influenced by multiple levels of environmental context.

Microsystem

Immediate environments in which the child directly interacts.

Mesosystem

Connections between different parts of the microsystem.

Exosystem

Environmental settings that indirectly influence the child.

Macrosystem

Larger cultural and societal influences.

Chronosystem

Changes in environments and circumstances over time.