PSYCH 302 midterm 2

wait for their partner

plotnik elephant study — in the delayed release condition, elephants learned to ________ before pulling

higher

plotnik elephant study — in the delayed release condition, pulling rates were significantly ______ after the partner arrived, showing deliberate coordination

did not attempt

plotnik elephant study — in the no-rope condition, elephants ______ the task because their partner didn’t have access

alternative

plotnik elephant study — some elephants used ______ strategies like standing on the rope to let the partner do the pulling

high social tolerance

plotnik elephant study — no aggression or competition was observed in trials w/ unequal food reward, showing _____

chimpanzees

plotnik elephant study — elephants demonstrate a level of cooperative cognition on par with ______

prosocial behavior

actions intended to benefit others & produce positive social outcomes

altruism

a subset of prosocial behavior involving helping others w/out expectation of reward, & sometimes at a personal cost

empathy

the process by which perceiving another’s emotional state evokes a corresponding state in the observer, more aligned w/ the other’s situation than the observer’s own prior state

altruism in the albino rat

a study in which rats learned to press a lever to avoid footshock, then saw a rat hanging on a harness or a block; rats pressed the lever more when they saw the hanging rat to relieve its distress

controversial

the idea of prosocial behavior/altruism in animals is ______

emotional contagion

automatic mirroring of another’s emotional state

sympathy

concern for another’s well-being without necessarily sharing their emotional state

single location

there is no ______ in the brain where empathy exists

mirror neurons

_______ in the premotor area fire both when an individual performs an action & when they observe someone else performing the same action, suggesting a neural basis for understanding others’ actions, intentions, & possibly emotions

grasping

_____ mirror neuron — similar neuronal activity in monkeys when they observe an experimenter’s hand grasping food vs. when the monkey grasps the food

associative learning

some argue that mirror neuron activity reflects ____ rather than a specialized neural system for empathy

ACC, anterior insula

____ and _____ activation were correlated with individual empathy scores in the study that looked at brain activation of an individual when watching their loved one receive pain

ACC

people scoring higher in empathy showed higher _____ activity to others’ pain

affective, sensory

the neural substrate for empathetic experience does not involve the entire pain network; it involves only the part associated w/ _____ qualities of pain, but not _____ qualities

cagemates

empathy study w/ mice: modulation of pain sensitivity in mice produced only by exposure to _____ but not to strangers in pain

visual observation

________ is important for empathy

restrainer

a free rat learned to intentionally & quickly open a _____ and free their cagemate; they did not do this when it was empty or contained an object

freezing behavior, ACC

in 1 study involving footshocks, observer mice developed ___ by observing other mice receive repetitive footshocks, and inactivation of the _____ impaired this observational fear learning

fear response

10-min interaction w/ recently fear-conditioned partner in the home cage improves acquisition & retention of the _____

social transmission

1 study on stress-induced 22-kHz USV calls in which 1 rat was fear-conditioned while the other was not found that there was no evidence of ______ of fear in rats

symbolic

singer empathy study — female partner observed under fMRI scan while either she or her partner received electric shocks; a _____ cue (rather than visual/emotional) indicated who would receive the stimulation

affective processing

singer empathy study — _______, not sensory representation, underpins empathy for pain

higher

ahn worker-parasite study — ____ ACC activity (cFos expression) was found in worker rats vs. parasite rats

lever-pressing, social

ahn worker-parasite study — inactivating the ACC reduced ______ in workers under only ____ conditions

effortful behavior

ahn worker-parasite study — ACC is necessary for _____ behavior

inhibition, excitability

ahn worker-parasite study — reduced ____ and increased ____ in the ACC may promote worker behavior

altruism

ahn worker-parasite study — workers’ lever-pressing behavior was not due to _____ because they stopped pressing if they couldn’t access the food

dominance

ahn worker-parasite study — the worker-parasite role is not explained by dominance

amygdala

ahn worker-parasite study — inactivation of the _____ suppressed lever-pressing in both social & individual settings, suggesting a role in motivation not specific to social effort

social dilemmas

ahn worker-parasite study — ACC helps animals make decisions in _____, especially when labor exploitation/unequal effort distribution is present

visual cues

______ are often considered crucial for promoting prosocial behavior

Darwin

_____ proposed that facial expressions reflect emotions & may serve an evolutionarily conserved role in social behavior across species

visual acuity

rats have poor _____ — how can they see & interpret facial expressions? (evidence against role of vision in prosocial behavior)

personal rewards

prosocial actions may also provide _____, such as pleasure or relief from guilt

always

worker-parasite — stalemate times vary, but once a worker emerges, it is _____ the worker

prosocial behavior

the worker-parasite study showed no evidence of _____ behavior

social interactions, decision making

ACC is implicated in ______ and ______ processes

game theory

a collection of rigorous models attempting to understand & explain situations in which decision-makers must interact w/ one another

selfish, strategic

decision-makers are generally less ____ and ____ than game theory predicts and value social factors like reciprocity and equity

ultimatum game

a game in which 2 players must divide a sum of money, with the proposer specifying the division; the responder has the choice to accept or reject the offer — if rejected, neither player receives anything

trust game

a player (investor) must decide how much of an endowment to invest with a partner (trustee) — once transferred the money is multiplied & the trustee has the opportunity to return money to the investor but doesn’t have to return anything. if returned, both players end up with higher payoff than the original endowment

mutual defection

game theory predicts ______ in the prisoner’s dilemma, but players exhibit more trust than expected

striatum

______ appears to be centrally involved in social decisions, esp those involving game theory

cooperation

striatum tracks a social partner’s decision to reciprocate or not reciprocate _______

caudate

game theory article — _____ activity correlated with prediction of reciprocity

social altruism

the striatum may be the neural basis of ______

anterior insula

game theory study —- greater activation in the _____ as the unfairness of the offer increased

coordination games

game theory game — success depends on correctly predicting partner’s strategy

theory of mind

coordination games show use of _____, and deficits (like in autism) reduce performance in such games

skin conductance

_____ rises for unfair offers in games, showing physiological arousal

acceptance, rejection

disrupting the DLPFC leads to more _____ of unfair offers as it is linked to cognitive control, while disrupting the VMPFC leads to more _____ of unfair offers as it is linked to emotional regulation

oxytocin

_____ is a hormone that increases trust in the trust game

brain areas in ToM

medial PFC, ACC, insula

cooperate

monkeys will _____ to solve a problem, as seen in the monkey bowl study

reward

mutual cooperation & reciprocal altruism is associated with consistent activation in brain areas linked with _____ processing: NAcc, caudate, ventromedial/frontal OFC, rostral ACC

rational, irrational

decisions can follow logical reasoning (_____) or be influenced by biases, emotions, or flawed logic (_____)

preventive war, volunteer’s dilemma

real-life examples of game theory

multiple

there are ______ areas of the brain involved in ToM

intraspecies

the costs and benefits of _____ aggression often make extreme conflict dangerous

evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS)

a strategy that, if adopted by most members of a population, cannot be outcompeted by any alternative strategy; once established, natural selection penalizes individuals who deviate from itr

ESS

a stable ratio of 5 doves to 7 hawks demonstrates _____ when considering the point system; there is an average payoff for the doves and hawks of 6.25

retaliator

conditional strategist (effective) — behave like the other individual in the interaction

bully

behaves like H until someone hits back, at which point they run away (not effective strategy)

prober-retaliator

retaliator but occasionally escalates confrontation (best strategy)

social spider

disturb spider in its hole → it will go into another spider’s hole → the resident spider escapes and goes into another hole (intruder always wins)

passive, confounding variables

bravo music study — an important aspect of this study is that it studied dissonance vs. consonance in ______ listening while controlling for _______ like rhythm, melody, timbre, and dynamics

valenced, arousing, potent

bravo music study — dissonant pieces were consistently rated as more negatively _____, but not more ______ or ______

mPFC, ACC

brain areas activated by dissonant more than consonant music

negative emotional tasks, conflict detection

mPFC & ACC are associated with _____ and _____

increased connectivity, greater integration

bravo music study — ACC had _____ with left and right auditory cortices during dissonance, suggesting _______ is needed for processing negative emotion in music

perception, action, emotion

3 components of musical experience

predictive coding of music (PCM)

in the process of listening to music, the brain continuously makes predictions of what will happen next in a musical piece; this process gives rise to perception, action, emotion, and over time, learning

past experiences

PCM is shaped by ______ like culture, context, state, competence, traits, and biology

prediction error

a syncopated rhythm leads to a ______ which causes us to tap our foot to adjust to the beat

melody, harmony, rhythm

3 constituents of music

pitch

the perceptual correlate of periodicity in sounds that allows their ordering on a frequency-related musical scale (our perception of frequency)

timbre

perceived quality of a sound, including its spectral composition & additional noise characteristics (tone & texture)

auditory cortex

the _____ has particular neurons that respond selectively to pitch, pitch change, and expectation, indicating a spatial map for representing distinct melodic dimensions

conflict detection

ACC activity is related to _____; observed ACC activity when listening to dissonant music is related to listeners attempting to find a tonal center in dissonant variations

motor system

rhythm perception involves the _____ in the brain, which helps establish and maintain musical pulses & meters

newborns

training can shape _____’ perception of duple or triple meter

body movement

the experience of _____ plays an important role in music rhythm perception

in sync

moving _____ with a beat may encourage prosocial behavior

groove

pleasurable urge to move with music; highest at medium syncopation levels (inverted U model)

NAcc, OFC

syncopation actives the _____ and ____, which are key regions in the reward system that respond to rhythm predictability

NAcc

part of the reward system; functional connectivity between this area and the auditory cortex/OFC predicts whether a person will choose to buy a song

hippocampus

music-evoked joy strengthens connection between _____ and hypothalamus, potentially reducing stress by lowering cortisol levels

7 C’s

the _____ of social functions of music: contact, cognition, co-pathy, communication, coordination, cooperation, cohesion

co-pathy

interindividual empathetic states, reducing conflicts & strengthening group bonds

autism

individuals w/ ____ struggle with social-emotional interactions but can process emotions in music normally

music memory

Alzheimer’s patients often retain ______ even when other memories fade

anxiety, pain, stroke recovery

music helps reduce ____ and ____ and may help with deficits in verbal memory, negative emotions, and attention in _______

excitatory, inhibitory, locally

interneurons can be _____ and ____ and project _____

interneuron groupings

morphology, electrophysiology, connectivity, molecular expression