General Exam 1 review

Prehypertension

Diagnosed when resting systolic pressure is 120-139 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure is 80-89 mmHg [1].

Hypertension

Diagnosed when resting blood pressure is greater than 140/90 mmHg [2].

Hypotension

Chronic low blood pressure below 90/60 mmHg [2].

Bradycardia

A persistent resting adult heart rate that is less than 60 beats/min [3].

Tachycardia

A persistent resting adult heart rate that is greater than 100 beats/min [3].

Atrial Fibrillation

Condition where faulty electrical signals cause the atria to beat very rapidly and in an irregular pattern [3].

Heart Murmur

An abnormal heart sound, which can be functional (benign) or pathological (indicating a leaky or stenosed valve) [4, 5].

Prolapsed Valve

A valve in which a leaflet billows or bends backward, preventing proper closure (most commonly affecting the mitral valve) [6, 7].

Valve Stenosis

A narrowing of a heart valve causing incomplete opening and obstructed blood flow [5].

Atherosclerosis

Buildup of fatty deposits (plaque or atheroma) within arterial walls that obstructs blood flow [5, 8].

Arteriosclerosis

Calcification of fatty deposits (atheroma) within arterial walls [9, 10].

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Obstruction of the coronary arteries supplying blood to the heart, usually caused by atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis [9].

Aneurysm

A weakness in arterial vessel walls that can balloon out and potentially rupture [10].

Myocardial Infarction (MI)

Death of myocardial tissue caused by ischemia (lack of blood flow) [11].

Angina Pectoris

Heaviness or pain in the chest caused by temporary or reversible myocardial ischemia and lactic acid buildup [12].

Left-Sided Heart Failure

Inability of the left ventricle to pump efficiently, leading to blood pressure buildup in pulmonary capillaries and pulmonary edema [13, 14].

Right-Sided Heart Failure

Inability of the right ventricle to pump efficiently, leading to blood pressure buildup in systemic capillaries and systemic edema [13, 15].

Hematocrit Test

Measures the ratio of red blood cell volume to total blood volume (normal: 35%-49%) [16, 17].

Hemoglobin Measurement

Determines the amount of hemoglobin in a given volume of blood (normal: 12-17 g/dL) [16, 17].

Normal RBC Count

4 to 6 million cells/µL of blood [17, 18].

Normal WBC Count

3,500 to 10,000 cells/µL of blood [19, 20].

Leukocytosis

An abnormally high white blood cell count exceeding 10,000 cells/µL [19, 21].

Leukopenia

An abnormally low white blood cell count below 3,500 cells/µL [21, 22].

Normal Platelet Count

150,000 to 450,000 cells/µL of blood [23, 24].

Aplastic Anemia

Inadequate erythropoiesis caused by destruction of red bone marrow by radiation, toxins, or drugs [25, 26].

Pernicious Anemia

Decrease in RBCs caused by a lack of intrinsic factor from the stomach, preventing vitamin B12 absorption [25, 27].

Primary Polycythemia

Cancer of the blood that results in the overproduction of red blood cells [27].

Secondary Polycythemia

Increased red blood cell count caused by dehydration or hypoxemia [27].

Hodgkin Lymphoma

Lymphatic cancer characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells [28].

Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

The most common lymphatic cancer, involving abnormal B and T cells without Reed-Sternberg cells, with a higher tendency to metastasize [28].

Lymphedema

Swelling of tissue due to obstruction and accumulation of excess lymph [29].

Anaphylactic Shock

Severe systemic allergic reaction causing massive vasodilation, fluid leak, and airway constriction; treated primarily with epinephrine [30, 31].

SCID

Genetic disorder causing marked deficits in B and T cells, often due to a defective adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme [32].

ACE Inhibitors ("PRILS")

Suppress the renin-angiotensin system by preventing Angiotensin I to II conversion, causing arterial dilation and blocking aldosterone to decrease sodium/water retention [3].

ACE Inhibitors Indications & Side Effects

First-line therapy for hypertension, heart failure, and MI; side effects include dry cough, hyperkalemia, hypermagnesemia, dizziness, and angioedema [3].

Arrhythmia

Any abnormal heart rhythm [4].

Functional Murmur

An abnormal heart sound that is benign and non-pathological [5].

Pathological Murmur

An abnormal heart sound caused by a leaky valve (regurgitation) or a stenosed valve obstructing blood flow [5, 6].

Valve Atresia

A congenital valve defect in which a valve completely lacks an opening for blood flow [10].

Atherosclerosis Pathophysiology

Endothelial damage causes oxidized LDL accumulation in the intima, recruiting macrophages that become foam cells, forming a lipid core, fibrous cap, and atheroma [11-13].

Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)

Usually occurs in adult males and causes abnormal granulocytes to quickly proliferate in the bone marrow.

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML)

Occurs in middle-aged adults and in children and causes the rapid growth of immature granulocytes in the bone marrow.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)

The most common type of leukemia in children and causes an abnormal increase of lymphocytes.

Chronic Lymphoblastic Leukemia (CLL)

Usually occurs in people over the age of 70 and causes cancerous B lymphocytes to spread from the bone marrow to other parts of the body.

Prothrombin Time (PT)

A blood clotting study test that evaluates the ability of blood to clot properly.

Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy

A procedure involving collecting and examining bone marrow for the presence of abnormal cells.

Lumbar Puncture

A procedure involving collecting and looking at cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord for abnormal WBCs.

Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

A clotting disorder involving excess clots forming throughout the body or widespread coagulation in unbroken vessels.

Elephantiasis

A tropical disease caused by a roundworm that blocks lymphatic drainage.

Lymphangitis

Inflammation of lymphatic tissue due to infection.

Tonsillitis

Infection of the tonsils that may spread to the middle ear and is usually treated with antibiotics or tonsillectomy.

Lymph Node Biopsy

A procedure used to collect and examine a part of a lymph node for the presence of abnormal cells.

Axillary Lymph Nodes

Regional lymph nodes where breast cancer commonly spreads and which are typically biopsied.

Type I Hypersensitivity Mechanism

Immediate allergic response mediated by IgE antibodies binding to mast cells and causing histamine release.

Molecular Mimicry

Phenomenon where a foreign molecule shares structural similarity with a self-antigen, potentially triggering autoimmunity.

Graves Disease

Autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism by overstimulating thyroid hormone production.

Multiple Sclerosis Autoimmunity

Autoimmune condition where immune cells enter the central nervous system and destroy white matter myelin.

HIV Target Cells

Human immunodeficiency virus primarily attacks and destroys helper T cells (CD4 cells), leading to depressed cellular immunity.

Delayed Hypersensitivity Mechanism

Cell-mediated immune response involving T cells and macrophages that causes delayed skin inflammation 1 to 3 days after exposure.

Thrombophlebitis

Inflammation of a vein caused by the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) [16].

Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT) Risk

Clot formation in deep veins that poses a severe risk of dislodging and traveling to the lungs, resulting in a pulmonary embolism [16, 17].

Varicose Veins

Enlarged veins caused by dysfunctional venous valves that allow backflow and pooling of blood [18, 19].

Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

Failure of one ventricle to pump efficiently, causing blood pressure buildup in the preceding circuit and resulting in tissue edema [21, 22].

Shock Definition & Categories

Life-threatening condition where organ systems lack adequate blood flow; includes cardiogenic, hypovolemic, septic, and neurogenic shock [25].

Inflammatory Cardiac Disorders

Includes endocarditis (endocardium), myocarditis (myocardium), and pericarditis (pericardium) [26].

Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)

Congenital failure of the fetal ductus arteriosus to close after birth [27].

Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)

Congenital hole in the interatrial septum allowing blood mixing between right and left atria [27, 28].

Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)

Congenital hole in the interventricular septum allowing blood to shunt from the stronger left ventricle to the right ventricle [29, 30].

Tetralogy of Fallot

Combination of four defects: pulmonary valve stenosis, VSD, overriding aorta, and right ventricular hypertrophy [31, 32].

Coarctation of the Aorta

Congenital narrowing of a segment of the aorta that increases left ventricular workload [33].

Cardiac Tamponade

Excessive buildup of fluid within the pericardium that compresses the heart [34].

Rheumatic Heart Disease

Heart condition caused by rheumatic fever resulting in carditis and valve stenosis [34].

Blood Composition

Blood accounts for 8% of total body weight, consisting of 55% plasma, 45% formed elements (RBCs), and

WBC Differential - Neutrophils

Account for 40% to 70% of total leukocytes.

WBC Differential - Lymphocytes

Account for 20% to 50% of total leukocytes.

WBC Differential - Monocytes

Account for 5% to 8% of total leukocytes.

WBC Differential - Eosinophils

Account for 2% to 6% of total leukocytes.

WBC Differential - Basophils

Account for 1% to 2% of total leukocytes.

Prothrombin Time (PT) & PTT

PT tests evaluate overall blood clotting ability, while PTT tests evaluate the function of specific clotting factors.

Bone Marrow Aspiration & Biopsy

Procedure collecting and examining bone marrow for the presence of abnormal cells.

Lumbar Puncture

Procedure collecting cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) around the brain and spinal cord to inspect for abnormal WBCs.

Anemia Definition

Loss of total oxygen-carrying capacity by RBCs due to decreased hemoglobin or reduced RBC numbers.

Folate Deficiency Anemia

Decrease in red blood cells caused by a deficiency in vitamin B9 (folic acid).

Hemorrhagic Anemia

Reduction in red blood cells resulting from excessive acute blood loss or hemorrhaging.

Iron Deficiency Anemia

Inadequate hemoglobin production caused by insufficient iron in the diet.

Hemolytic Anemia

Red blood cell destruction resulting from inherited genetic factors affecting hemoglobin.

Sickle Cell Anemia

Form of hemolytic anemia caused by a specific genetic mutation in the beta chain of hemoglobin.

Thalassemia

Form of hemolytic anemia caused by genetic mutations in both the alpha and beta chains of hemoglobin.

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)

Destruction of fetal Rh-positive red blood cells caused by maternal anti-Rh antibodies crossing the placenta during a subsequent pregnancy.

Polycythemia

An excess of red blood cells that thickens blood and increases the risk for blood clots.

Leukemia Definition

Cancer characterized by high WBC counts where the white blood cells are immature and incapable of fighting pathogens.

Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)

Cancer usually occurring in adult males that causes abnormal granulocytes to rapidly proliferate in bone marrow.

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML)

Cancer occurring in middle-aged adults and children causing rapid growth of immature granulocytes in bone marrow.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)

The most common type of leukemia in children, causing an abnormal increase of lymphocytes.

Chronic Lymphoblastic Leukemia (CLL)

Cancer usually occurring in people over age 70 causing cancerous B lymphocytes to spread from bone marrow.

Thrombus

A stationary blood clot that stays attached at its place of origin.

Lymphedema

Swelling of tissue caused by the obstruction and accumulation of excess lymph [9].

Elephantiasis

A tropical disease caused by a roundworm that blocks lymphatic drainage, resulting in severe lymphedema [3].

Lymphangitis

Inflammation of lymphatic vessels and tissue resulting from an infection [3].

Tonsillitis

Infection of the tonsils that can spread to the middle ear, treated with antibiotics or tonsillectomy if chronic [4].