BIO FINAL

STUDY GUYSSSS

Steps of the Scientific Method:

* Make an observation.


* Ask a question.
* Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
* Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
* Test the prediction.
* Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

Chem definition

Chem is the study of matter and the rules that govern its behavior. The organization, composition, and process within living things are all governed by the basic molecules.

Matter

All living things and nonliving things are matter. Matter is anything that has mass (and weight) and takes up space.

Atoms

Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, and is made of subatomic particles (smaller than an atom) particles

Protons

Positively charged particle

Neutrons

No charge particle

Electrons

Negatively charged particles

\-Orbit Nucleus

\-Nucleus is positively charged

Elements

\-a collection of atoms that all have the same number of proton

* Proton # NEVER changes
* Election and Neutron CAN change

Molecules

A molecule is made of more than one atom bonded together.

Compounds

formed when two elements are bonded together.

Periodic table

contains all elements

Mass number and atomic number

MICROSCOPE

metrics and measurement

Organic Compounds

formed by CARBON atoms bonding together. Organic compounds are found in all living things.

Carbon compounds

bonds of carbon with other elements are covalent bonds, bonds easily with itself and other atoms. Includes….

* carbohydrates
* proteins
* lipids
* nucleic acids

Biomolecules

molecules present in organisms that are essential to one or more typically biological processes, such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development

Carbohydrates

provides quick energy in the form of sugar/starches ex. Glycogen, Cellulose.

MONOMER= Monosaccharides.

BUILD= CHO (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen).

Monosaccharides

single sugar molecule, like Glucose

Polysaccharides

many sugar molecules (ex. starch, glycogen, cellulose)

Disaccharides

2 sugar molecules (ex. Maltose, sucrose, lactose)

Proteins

Function- Regulate cell processes, form bones, muscles, and transport materials.

CHON (CHO+nitrogen).

MONOMER= AMINO ACID. Each amino acid has an amino group (NH₂), a carboxyl group (COOH), and an “R group”, which is unique to each amino acid.

Lipids

Function- Provide long-term energy storage, hydrophobic molecules

CHO

MONOMER= fatty acids, comprised of 1 glycerol molecule and 1, 2, or 3 molecules of fatty acids.

Nucleic Acids

Function- stores genetic information in cells in the form of a code.

MONOMER= nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

Ex of nucleic acids. DNA+RNA. USE HYDROGEN BONDS. CHONP (CHON+ phosphorus).

~ Enzymes

proteins that act as catalysts, speeding up the rate of a chemical reaction by reducing the amount of energy needed to start the reaction. (Make things work fast 🤷).

All enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes Catalysts help metabolism, blood flow, regeneration of cells, etc.

Each enzyme has a specific shape in order to accept a molecule called a substrate. When the substrate attaches to the enzyme’s active SITE,

BONDS ARE FORMED OR BROKEN TO CREATE A DIFFERENT MOLECULE CALLED A PRODUCT. Synthesis + decomposition.

Synthesis

when molecules are joined together to form a larger product

Decomposition

when molecules are broken apart to form smaller products

Cell

The smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body. three main parts- the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.

Cell Theory

organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotic

Simple structure, No prominent nucleus, Unicellular, No organelles. Examples- bacteria and Archaea.

Eukaryotic

Complex structure, Prominent nucleus, Unicellular or multicellular. Membrane bounded organelles. Ex

BOTH PRO+EU

contain DNA, ribosomes, cell membrane, and cytoplasm

Plant cells ONLY

Cell Wall (extra layer of prot) , Central Vacuole (storage), Chloroplasts (photosynthesis + chlorophyll)

Animal Cells ONLY

Small or No Vacuole, Centrioles and Centrosomes (organizing microtubules that serve as the cell's skeletal system, within Centrosomes).

Solvent

substance doing the dissolving (usually a liquid)

Soute

substance being dissolved in the liquid

Solution

When one substance is dissolved in another

Diffusion

The random motion of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Does not require a membrane.

Equilibrium

the state at which the concentration of solute is the same throughout the solution

Osmosis

the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.

Hypotonic

the number of solute particles is lower than normal. Water will flow into the cell, where the concentration of solute is higher. Turgor pressure.

Isotonic

the amount of solute is the same inside the cell as it is outside. Equal flow.

Hypertonic

A hypertonic environment has a higher (above normal) amount of solute. Water will flow out of the cell towards the environment. Plasmolyzed.

~ Semipermeable Cell Membrane

selectively permeable to specific substances.

~ Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion with the concentration gradient, but with a protein helper.

Passive Transport

substances move with a concentration gradient (from high to low concentration). No helper protein.

Active transport

moves molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration. Because this is the opposite of the natural process, it DOES require energy (ATP).

Chemical Energy

All energy on earth originally comes from the sun. it can then be converted by plants into chemical energy. Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of chemical compounds.

ATP

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is like the energy currency for cells because it can be transported from one location to another. adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate groups.

Autotrophs

can make their own food from sunlight

Heterotrophs

need to consume other organisms for food.

Photosynthesis Reaction

convert light energy into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration Reaction:

Cellular respiration is the process by which all organisms break down glucose to gradually produce energy in the form of ATP.

The inputs of photosynthesis are the outputs of respiration and vice versa

Therefore, scientists say that photosynthesis is the “opposite” of cellular respiration.

\
HAS MITOCHONDRIA-> CARRIES OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, composed of a string of nucleotides, which are made of 3 parts- 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, A phosphate group, A nitrogen base (4 choices, adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine). double helix, which looks like a twisted ladder. Seg of DNA\= gene. tightly coiled around proteins called histones and condensed into chromosomes.

- Base Pairing

Adenine pairs w/ Thymine. Cytosine pairs w/ Guanine. Uracil can replace Thymine in pairing w/ Adenine. Base order determines genetic trait.

~ DNA Fingerprinting

?????

~ DNA Replication

to copy the DNA (called DNA replication), enzymes separate the two strands and use one side as the blueprint to make a complementary strand.

~ Components of RNA & types

act both as genes and as enzymes. Bases are A-UG-C. Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

~ Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins by cells that uses DNA, RNA, and various enzymes. It generally includes transcription, translation, and post-translational events, such as protein folding, modifications, and proteolysis.

~ Chromosomes

Human body cells have 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes

Sex chromosomes

males have XY and females are XX.

-Gametes

GAMETES are sec cells (22 auto 1 sex chromosome). Female gamete- egg cell. Male gamete- sperm cell.

~ Karyotyping

examine chromosomes in a sample of cells. This test can help identify genetic problems as the cause of a disorder or disease.

~ Human Traits

determined by DNA??

- Mutation

A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism. base substitutions, deletions and insertions.

~ Darwin

theory of evolution. Natural selection\=CONFIRMED. 4 points\= 1. More offspring are produced than survive 2. Individuals show variation

~ Natural Selection

organisms that are better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring, which passes on the genes that aided their success.

~ Biological Evidences for Evolution

Comparative Anatomy (Homologies are indicative if common ancestry), Homologous Structures (same structure, different function), Analogous structures (same function, different structure), comparative embryology (similar embryo states)

~ Fossil Evidences for Evolution

The fossil record - fossils appear in the layers, or STRATA, of sedimentary rocks (gives relative fossil age and comparisons), Transitional fossils- ex. Archaeopteryx (like a midpoint/link between two species (dino and bird), fossils provide this link/EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION)

~ Ecology

thee scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments Including interactions with living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem

Ecology terms:

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is comprised of all the biotic factors in the specific area

~ Abiotic Factors

NONLIVING THINGS IN AN AREA. Air, water, rocks/minerals, temp, light, soil, etc. Sun provides radiant heat to earth. This heat warms air masses, which, in turn, causes wind. “Any disaster you can think of” Temp, sunlight, latitude.

-Biotic factors

LIVING THINGS IN AN AREA. Determine the plants, vegetation, and animals. Microscopic organisms are also important. (micro)-\> Abiotic -\> vegetation -\> animals.

~ Earth's Organizational Hierarchy

Organism

Population

group of organisms of one species in one place at one time (the glee club)

Community

all of the populations (all living things in an ecosystem)

Ecosystem

all biotic and abiotic factors in a certain area (my stardew valley save)

Biome

portion of biosphere with a particular climate (*que mc opening) BA bum bA bu bummmmm

Biosphere

the part of the earth occupied by living organisms (aliens on mars?).

Organism

any living thing that, Has an organized structure, Respond to stimuli, Reproduce, Capacity for growth, Maintain homeostasis, Biological processes such as energy transformation

Biome

Portion of biosphere with a particular climate

biosphere

whole portion of the earth that supports life

~ Energy (in an ecosystem)

The sun provides energy to nearly all ecosystems. Ecosystems rely on photosynthesis to convert sun energy to bio energy.No sun ecosystems rely on deep sea hydrothermal vents and rely on chemicals formed from volcanically heated water. Chemosynthesis- conversion of these chemicals into usable energy

-Energy Transfer

one organism consumes another-\> 10% energy is transferred from each trophic level.

~ Energy Pyramid/ Trophic Levels

Producers-\> produce their own energy directly from sunlight aka autotrophs. Primary consumer-\> consume producers aka herbivores, Secondary consumer-\> consume primary consumers aka carnivores or omnivores, Tertiary consumers-\> consume secondary consumers

~ Food Chain

food chain is energy transfer shown from one organism to another. SINGULAR THINGS.

- Food Web

upgraded food chain. Multiple food chains to show energy flow in the whole ecosy

Herbivores

eat plants

Carnivores

eat meat.

Omnivore

eats both.

Scavengers

do not kill their food, eat animals that have already died

Saprotrophs

break down dead and decaying matter into simpler molecules for absorption

Mutualism

Ecological interaction between two or more species where each species has a net benefit. Ex. pollination

Neutralism

the relationship between two species which do interact but do not affect each other. Ex. spider and cacti

Commensalism

An association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other neither benefits nor is harmed

Amensalism

The relationship between two organisms where one is destroyed and the other is unaffected

Parasitism

One organism lives on an organism, which causes the host of this organism harm

Predation

When a member of one species eats a member of another species

Competition

2 organisms compete for the same limited resources in an ecosystem