Sociology Terms Exam 1

Sociology

the science of society

Social facts

products of human interaction with persuasive or coercive power that exist externally to any individual

Data

systematically collected sets of empirical observations

Research questions

 queries about the world that can be answered empirically

Sociological research methods

scientific strategies for collecting empirical data about social facts

Qualitative research methods

tools of sociological inquiry that involve careful consideration and discussion of the meaning of nonnumerical data

Quantitative research methods

tools of sociological inquiry that involve examining numerical data with mathematics

Sociological sympathy

the skill of understanding others as they understand themselves

Research ethics

 the set of moral principles that guide empirical inquiry

Sociological theory

empirically based explanations and predictions about relationships between social facts

Social patterns

 explainable and foreseeable similarities and differences among people influenced by the social conditions in which they live

Standpoints

points of view grounded in lived reality

Public sociology

the work of using sociological theory to make societies better

Sociological imagination

 the capacity to consider how peopleʼs lives—including our own—are shaped by the social facts that surround us

Theory of mind

the recognition that other minds exist, followed by the realization that we can try to imagine othersʼ mental states

Looking glass self

the self that emerges as a consequence of seeing ourselves as we think other people see us

In-depths interviews

a research method that involves an intimate conversation between a researcher and a research subject

Coding

a process in which segments of text are identified as belonging to relevant categories

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a phenomenon in which what people believe is true becomes true, even if it wasnʼt originally true

Laboratory experiment

a research method that involves a test of a hypothesis under carefully controlled conditions

Variable

any measurable phenomenon that varies

Experimental group

 the group in a laboratory experiment that undergoes the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable

Control group

 the group in a laboratory experiment that does not undergo the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable

Self-narrative

 a story we tell about the origin and likely future of our selves

Culture

differences in groupsʼ shared ideas, as well as the objects, practices, and bodies that reflect those ideas

Socialization

the lifelong learning process by which we become members of our cultures

Culturally competent

able to understand and navigate our cultures with ease

Social construct

an influential and shared interpretation of reality that will vary across time and space

Social construction

the process by which we layer objects with ideas, fold concepts into one another, and build connections between them

Symbolic structure

a constellation of social constructs connected and opposed to one another in overlapping networks of meaning

Subcultures

 subgroups within societies that have distinct cultural ideas, objects, practices, and bodies

Beliefs

ideas about what is true and false

Values

notions as to whatʼs right and wrong

Norms

shared expectations for behavior

Interpersonal socialization

active efforts by others to help us become culturally competent members of our cultures

Self-socialization

active efforts we make to ensure weʼre culturally competent members of our cultures

Social ties

the connections between us and other people

Social networks

webs of ties that link us to each other and, through other peopleʼs ties, to people to whom weʼre not directly linked

Social media

social networks mediated by the internet

Homophily

our tendency to connect with others who are similar to us

Social network analysis

a research method that involves the mapping of social ties and exchanges between them

Mass media

 mediated communication intended to reach not just one or a handful of people but many

Media socialization

 the process of learning how to be culturally competent through our exposure to media

Biosocial research methods

 tools of sociological inquiry that investigate relationships between sociological variables and biological ones

Culture-as-rational thesis

the idea that weʼre socialized to know a set of culturally specific arguments with which we can justify why we feel something is right or wrong

Cultural relativism

 the practice of noting the differences between cultures without passing judgment

Social identities

the socially constructed categories and subcategories of people in which we place ourselves or are placed by others

Content analysis

involves counting and describing patterns or themes in media. Analysis can be quantitative, qualitative, or both

Distinction

active efforts to affirm identity categories and place ourselves and others into their subcategories

Positive distinction

 the claim that members of our own group are superior to members of other groups

In group bias

 preferential treatment of members of our own group and mistreatment of others

Minimal group paradigm

the tendency of people to form groups and actively distinguish themselves from others for the most trivial of reasons

Social identity theory

the idea that people are inclined to form social groups, incorporate group membership into their identity, take steps to enforce group boundaries, and maximize positive distinction and in-group success

Colonialism

a practice in which countries claim control over territories, the people in them, and their natural resources, then exploit them for economic gain

Psychological wage

 a noneconomic good given to one group as a measure of superiority over other groups

One-drop rule

the idea that anyone with any trace of Black ancestry should be considered Black

Blood quantum rule

a law limiting legal recognition of American Indians to those who have at least a certain level of documented Indigenous ancestry

Ethnicity

an identity based on collective memories of a shared history and distinctive culture

Gender

the ideas, traits, interests, and skills that we associate with being biologically male or female

Sex

 a reference to physical traits related to sexual reproduction

Gender binary

a research method that involves collecting and analyzing data that reveal facts about past events, with the aim of enhancing sociological theory

Intersex

people with physical characteristics typical of both people assigned male and people assigned female at birth

Cisgender

people assigned male at birth who identify as men as well as people assigned female at birth who identify as women

Transgender

people assigned male at birth who donʼt identify as men as well as people assigned female at birth who donʼt identify as women

Nonbinary

 people who identify as both man and woman or neither man nor woman

Cisnormativity

a naturalization of the idea that oneʼs gender identity always follows oneʼs assigned sex

Cissexism

prejudice against and discrimination toward people perceived to be trans rather than cisgender
Stereotypes

Stereotypes

clusters of ideas attached by social convention to people with specific social identities

Content analysis

a research method that involves counting and describing patterns of themes in media

Doing identity

the active performance of social identities

Consumption

the use of wages to purchase goods and services

Conspicuous consumption

spending elaborately on items and services with the sole purpose of displaying oneʼs wealth

Stigma

a personal attribute that is widely devalued by members of oneʼs society

Controlling images

pervasive negative stereotypes that serve to justify or uphold inequality

Prejudice

attitudinal bias against individuals based on their membership in a social group

Status

high or low esteem

Status beliefs

collectively shared ideas about which social groups are more or less deserving of esteem

Explicit attitudes

beliefs that we choose to have or at least know we have

Implicit attitudes

beliefs we have that we are mostly unaware of one that our brains retrieve without our conscious participation

Computational sociology

a research method that uses computers to perform tasks that cannot—or cannot without great difficulty—be performed by humans

Status elite

people who carry many positively regarded social identities

Ableism

prejudice against and discrimination toward people perceived to have disabilities

Intersectionality

the recognition that our lives are shaped by multiple interacting identities

Social interaction

moments we share with other people

Social rules

culturally specific norms, policies, and laws that guide our behavior

Folkways

loosely enforced norms

Mores

tightly enforced norms that carry moral significance

Taboos

social prohibitions so strong that the thought of violating them can be sickening

Policies

rules that are made and enforced by organizations

Laws

rules that are made and enforced by cities, states, or federal governments

Social sanctions

reactions by others aimed at promoting conformity

Account

an excuse that explains our rule breaking but also affirms that the rule is good and right

Symbolic interactionism

the theory that social interaction depends on the social construction of reality

Dramaturgy

the practice of looking at social life as a series of performances in which weʼre actors on metaphorical stages

Impression management

efforts to control how weʼre perceived by others

Face

a version of ourselves that we want to project in a specific setting

Front stage

a public space in which we are aware of having an audience

Back stage

private or semiprivate spaces in which we can relax or rehearse

Interpersonal discrimination

prejudicial behavior displayed by individuals

Field experiment

a research method that involves collecting and analyzing data that reveal facts about past events, with the aim of enhancing sociological theory