Theories and Methods in Context

1.Functionalism

-->Sociologists:
-Talcott Parsons-American sociologist
-Emile Durkheim-Founding father of Functionalism
-Robert Merton-American sociologist

Mechanical vs Organic

-According to Durkheim, the functions of society had shifted with the emergence of industrialisation
-As a result, society has developed from a mechanical to organic approach

Why was mechanical solidarity no longer deemed as functional in "modern" Europe?

-Very similar roles
-Shared norms and values
-Replaceable components to keep machine functioning
-Slight division of labour

Organic solidarity

-Durkheim recognised that mechanical solidarity was lost due to the growth of industrialisation
-Therefore "modern" societies thrive best when under organic solidarity
-The notion that society can function as a unit, but with further division of labour

Organic Analogy

-However, Parsons (1970) develops organic solidarity further
-With this, he created organic analogy
-Specifying the functions of the organs (institutions) of a "modern" society
-Parsons argues that there are three elements to this:
-->System-A self- regulating system. 'Organs' (which are made up of cells) that maintain the body/ keep the body going automatically. IN SOCIETY: Institutions such as the family, education system etc., as well as individual roles e.g. teacher, mother.
-->System needs- Society has basic needs that are required to thrive e.g. nutrition. IN SOCIETY: Members must be socialised adequately for society to function.
-->Functions-The contributions to the system to which also determines survival e.g. the circulatory system carries oxygen and nutrients. IN SOCIETY: The economy helps maintain the social system by meeting needs for food and shelter.

The System's Needs

-->Instrumental Needs:
Goal Attainment - Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political subsystem, through institutions such as parliament.
Adaptation - the social system meets its members' material needs through the economic subsystem.
-->Expressive Needs:
Integration - the different parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the subsystem of religion, education + media.
Latency - refers to processes that maintain society over time. The kinship subsystem provides patter maintenance (socialising individuals to go on performing the role society requires) and tension management (a place to 'let off steam' after the stresses of work).

For Parsons, this value consensus is achieved through integration. Integration consists of two 'mechanisms':

-->Socialisation: The process through which individuals learn the norms and values of society.
-->Social control:The various methods used to persuade or force individuals to conform to the dominant social norms and values of a society or group.

Parts of the Social System

-->Parsons GAIL model:
-Goal Attainment: The selection and definition of a society's priorities and aims, and providing the means of achieving them. POLITICAL SYSTEM- political parties, pressure groups and parliament and state agencies.
-Adaptation: Adapting to the environment and providing the basic material necessities for continued human existence. ECONOMY- e.g factories, financial institutions, and shops concerned with economic production.
-Integration: coordinating all parts of the system to achieve shared goals, with people having a sense of belonging in society. CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS- media, education and religion socialise individuals into conformity to social norms and values.
-Latency: minimising social tensions and interpersonal conflicts which might prevent individuals and society from working efficiently. FAMILY AND KINSHIP- family, a place to recharge batteries.

Social Change

-Parsons identifies two types of society each with their own norms - traditional and modern. For example, modern societies pursue individual self-interest, achieve status and all individuals are judged on universal standards. On the other hand, traditional societies expect individuals to put the collective interests first, status is ascribed and individuals are judged by standards.
-Change between these two societies is gradual, an evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation, much like an organism evolves (organic analogy).

Merton's critique (1968)

-Parsons assumes that all people get along and will follow suit. Parsons ignores agency/ functional autonomy.
-Parsons assumes that EVERYTHING in society has a positive function. Parsons ignores dysfunction in society. This is not positive for individuals!
-Parsons assumes that functions and institutions are irreplaceable- he reckons there will be no social order without these.

Evaluation

-->Teleological perspective-Functionalists argue things exist based on function, critics suggest functions happen because they exist.
-->Marxist perspective- Society is not harmonious - upper class exploits lower class - inequality exists - therefore not working together in the way functionalists suggest.
-->Social action perspective-Functionalists assume that humans are shaped by society, social action argues that humans are shaped by interactions with each other and this builds society.
-->Postmodern perspective-Argue that functionalism assumes society is stable + orderly - metanarrative of society which is no longer relevant.

2- Marxism(conflict perspective)

Marxists:
-Karl Marx
-Friedrich Engels
Neo-Marxists:
-Antonio Gramsci
-Louis Althusser

Traditional Marxists

-->Friedrich Engels (1820- 1895):
-Unspoken founding father of Marxism
-Referred to as a Philosopher rather than Sociologists
-Produced numerous literature on the nature of work, social institutions (families) and one of his famous themes- communism.

Karl Marx (1818- 1883)

-German Sociologist: Previously a journalist
-A structuralist
-Arguably a positivist
-Did not see progress an inevitable, smooth transition
-Therefore, acknowledging barriers which highlights the contradictions in a structured society

Historical materialism

-This approach is based on the idea that humans come with material needs
-Therefore, it is inevitable that we work for goods
-This is known as the forces of production
-As a result of this, production is directed by the ruling class to meet their own needs
-Going further the mode of production becomes an economic base for the superstructure

Exploitation

-->The Exploited:
Individuals who are subjected to more labour than needed to produce goods needed (surplus value).
-->The Exploiter:
Performs less labour than needed to produce the good that's they consume

Marx goes even further to suggest that there are three class societies that display their own forms of exploitation:

-->Ancient society
-->Feudal society
-->Capitalist society

Capitalism

-Capitalism is based on a division between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.
-Unlike slaves or serfs, the proletariat are legally free and separated from the means of production, meaning they have to sell their labour to the bourgeoisie to survive.
-However the exchange is not equal - the proletariat receive enough to keep them alive whilst the bourgeoisie make a profit off of their labour.
-Competition between capitalists also means that the ownership of means of production becomes more and more concentrated to a few individuals - any independent owners are drive into the proletariat.
-Capitalism also continues to expands the forces of production in pursuit of profit.
-All of this leads to class polarisation - a division into the bourgeoisie (minority) and proletariat (majority).

Alienation

-Linking back to WPW, we have seen the impact and importance of alienation on society- in particular for the proletariat. Marxists claim that alienation exists in all societies
-However, in a capitalist society, it is at its peak
-Why is that? Separation at work, The intensity of the division of labour

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Recognises importance of economy and how economic changes influence range of other institutions.
-Focus on private ownership of means of production provides explanation for extreme inequalities in wealth e.g. wealthiest 1% in UK own 90% of wealth.
-->Limitations:
-Marx's predictions have not come true - in Western culture capitalism is stronger than ever and standard of living is better. -Communism in countries like China casts doubts on practicality of implementing communism. Classical marxism overstates conflict.
-Two-class model is inaccurate e.g. Britain has multiple classes.
-Over-emphasises class and understates gender, ethnicity, age etc.
-Too deterministic - economic base and superstructure overemphasised economy. Does not acknowledge that capitalism may come about in other ways e.g. Protestant ethic - individuals believe their afterlife is already determined but work hard to serve God, lead a simple life meaning masses of wealth is gathered.

Neo Marxism

-Neo Marxism (often referred to as Left Realism, especially in crime and deviance) emerged after Marx's death
-Neo Marxists seek to gain understanding of class conflict through a social action approach, rather than as a structuralist
-Neo Marxism is also known as Humanistic/ Critical Marxism
-This approach is often used to develop existing traditional Marxist theories, or to go against them

Hegemony

-->Gramsci (1891- 1937):
-Hegemony is the marginalisation of oppressed groups
-This is shown through the dominance of a ruling class
According to Gramsci, this occurs in two ways:
-Coercion and Consent/ hegemony
-For Gramsci, Traditional Marxists ignore the fact that revolution is harder to obtain due to dual consciousness; we are shaped by the ruling class ideology, as well as our own material conditions.
-->Therefore, we can only revolt in two ways...
-Power bloc: Using manpower to outnumber the ruling class as they are a minority.
-Counter hegemonic bloc: Completely rejecting ruling class ideology - need to offer alternative moral and ideological leadership.

Criticisms of Base-Superstructure Model

-Althusser suggests there is a more complex model of society, which Craib calls 'structural determinism'.
-->This model has three levels:
-The economic level
-The political level
-The ideological level
-Althusser's model suggests that the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy or partial independence from the economic level. The political and ideological levels are not a mere reflection of the economic level and can even affect what happens to the economy - two-way causality.

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Hegemony recognises the importance of people's ideas and actions.
-Althusser's concept of relative autonomy suggests that institutions in superstructure can influence economy (not just one way).
-Althusser's structuralist Marxism has been a major influence on theories such as postmodernism that reject the idea that scientific knowledge can be used to improve society.
-->Weaknesses:
-Gramsci is a humanist Marxist - believes that people can use their creativity, reason and free will to change society.
-Althusser suggests that we are not free agents - instead it is false class consciousness and in reality we are products of social structures. Althusser suggests socialism can only come about when there is a crisis of capitalism.
-Classical marxists argue that Marx did recognize the importance of ideas and meanings, with his discussions of class consciousness.
-Classical Marxists suggest that neo-Marxists underplay the importance of the economy in shaping social reality.

3- Feminism

-->Strands of Feminism:
-Liberal
-Radical
-Postmodernist
-Marxist
-Black

Liberal

-Seek to make changes through law and policies
-Also aim to alter cultural expectations of women
-Also known as reformist or egalitarian
-->Achievements:
-Sex Discrimination Act 1975
-Equal Pay Act 1970 (now under equality Act 2010)

Sex and Gender

-->Ann Oakley (1972)
-Liberal feminist
-According to Oakley, liberal feminists make a clear distinction between sex and gender

Socialisation

-->According to liberal feminists, sexist attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and transmitted through socialisation.
-->Therefore to achieve gender equality we must change society's socialisation patterns
-->Liberal feminism is an optimistic theory: The believe that:
-Changes in socialisation and culture are gradually leading to more rational attitudes to gender and overcoming ignorance and prejudice.
-Political action to introduce anti-discriminatory laws and policies: is steadily bringing about progress to a fairer society in which a person's gender is no longer important.

Women and roles

-Liberal feminists in particular, critique Functionalists
-This is because functionalists tend to focus on roles
-For liberal feminists, this ideology creates division. This makes equality harder to obtain
-Parsons suggests there are two roles in which genders play:
-->Instrumental: Performed in the public sphere; decision making, paid work etc
-->Expressive: Performed in the private sphere; unpaid work, love, emotion, attachment etc

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Liberal feminists have produced evidence documenting the extent of gender inequality and discrimination and legitimised the demand for reform in areas such as equal pay and media representation etc.
-Liberal feminists have also demonstrated that gender differences are the result of nurture rather than nature.
-->Limitations:
-Liberal feminists are criticised for being over optimistic, believing that gender inequality is based on the prejudices of individual or irrational laws that can be gradually reformed, rather than deep-seated structural oppression, such as capitalism or patriarchy.

Radical

-->Aims:
-To remove all men from society (which means removing patriarchy)
-To create and co- exist in a matriarchal society
-->Beliefs:
-Patriarchy is universal- Firestone (1974)
-Patriarchy is the primary and fundamental form of inequality and conflict
-All men oppress and exploit women. ALL men benefit from patriarchy

The person is political?

-Brownmiller, Rich and Greer all argue that there are sexual politics surrounding women in a patriarchal society.
-Sexual politics refers to the idea that society has internalised the idea that power and dominance applies to men only.
-This also suggests that men will 'naturally' assume positions of power in politics, thus facilitating political and institutional oppression.

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Acknowledgement of inequality that still exists in society.
-Suggests a reason why violence against women exists - to maintain men's power and dominance.
-->Limitations:
-Marxists - class is primary form of inequality and main cause of women's oppression.
-Does not explain why subordination looks different in different societies.
-Does not consider intersectionality.
-Concept of patriarchy is too vague - male violence is patriarchy, but patriarchy is maintained by male violence.

Marxist feminists

-Marxist feminists argue gender inequality arises primarily from the nature of capitalist society, not from an independent system of patriarchy.
-Capitalism intensifies patriarchal inequalities in pursuit of its own interests.
-Women are used as a cheap labour force, as a reserve army of labour which can be sacked and returned to the home during periods of economic recession.

Marxist

-->Aims:
-To remove capitalism as this is how patriarchy is exerted
-Barrett (1980)- to provide more emphasis on women's consciousness, motivations and impact of ideology on women
-Mitchell (1975)- to acknowledge the psychodynamic approach to women and femininity
-->Beliefs:
-Through revolting against a patriarchal society (which is capitalism)
-This is based on the idea that women are being exploited into unpaid work as a housewife and mother
-Ultimately, the subordination of women benefits capitalism (which is patriarchal in essence)

Ideology of Feminism to them

-Subordination of women provides economic functions e.g. free childcare.
-Some sociologists argue that we also need to consider the role of ideology in maintaining their oppression.

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Recognise the importance of economic production in women's subordination.
-->Limitations:
-Cannot explain subordination in non-capitalist societies.
-Unpaid labour benefits capitalism, but does not explain why is falls to women instead of men - Marxism is 'sex-blind' (Hartman, 1981).
-Places insufficient emphasis on the ways in which men oppress women and benefit from their unpaid labour.

Dual-Systems Feminism (Patriarchal Capitalism)

-Dual system feminists, like Walby , blend Marxist and radical feminist theories. Capitalism and patriarchy are seen as two (dual) separate systems that interact with and reinforce one another in the form of 'patriarchal capitalism'.
-This generates dual roles for women as both homemakers/child rearers and as paid workers outside the home.
-For example, patriarchy creates women's primary responsibility for housework and childcare, and related economic dependence on and subordination to men.

Evaluation

-->Solution: Remove the twin structures of patriarchy and capitalism, but they also support reform as proposed for liberal feminists, challenging the female/male relationships in both the private and public sphere.
-->Criticism: A primarily theoretical approach, and for not offering many solutions to the problems of women's subordination that have been already considered by other feminist theories.

Black feminism

-->Background:
-Developed first in the USA as a response to what it saw as the ethnocentrism of feminism as a whole. Black feminists criticised feminism of ignoring the problems faced by ethnic minorities in the US and elsewhere.
-Black feminists argue that many of their problems have stemmed first from having to fight against racism, which blinded them to the problems they were facing as women in a patriarchal world.

Black feminism

-->Aims:
-Also known as Intersectional feminism
-To lobby and protect the rights of the women within black, Asian and other ethnic minority groups and working class women
-->Beliefs:
-First wave and second wave feminism ignores the plight of 'othered' women
-Both first and second wave feminism reflects the experience of the white middle class all American woman
-In contemporary society, this includes discussions around transgendered women
-->Achievements:
-Campaigns on behalf of sexual violence of ethnic minorities
-Political and media campaigns for the representation of ethnic minority women locally and internationally

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Highlights the different experiences of ethnic minority women.
-Recognises that generalised 'broad brush' feminist theories do not take into account the diverse nature and experience of women
-->Limitations:
-Criticised for emphasising the differences between women, rather than concentrating on the shared problems of all.

Postmodern Feminism

-->Background:
-We are now in a new era of human history. Postmodern feminists agree with other feminists that gender is a very important identity and that women are often subject to discrimination.
-However they are interested in how people can pick and mix their identities, including gender and are also interested in the nature of masculinity.
-Rather than rejecting stereotypical aspects of the female gender identity, they often embrace their femininity as a positive identity.

Postmodern

-->Aims:
-Also known as post- structural
-To address the significance of identity of women in contemporary society
-Create a gender fluid society
-->Beliefs:
-Butler and Scott (1992): a discourse is necessary to understand the position of women and gender in society
-Changing the knowledge/ power structure surrounding women internationally will ultimately change the position of women in society
-Butler- deconstructing existing beliefs on womanhood is beneficial for society, as it raises awareness of women across social institutions
-->Achievements:
-Changing language and discussion of biological and medical definitions for women's health

Enlightenment Project

-Period of enlightenment has been used to legitimise domination by Western, white, middle-class males.
-Excluded women and other oppressed groups from this idea of reason, humanity + progress.
-In addition, according to Butler, middle-class white women have claimed to represent 'universal womanhood' without considering that women do not all share the same 'essence'.
-Our entities are constituted by discourses and different individuals have different discourses.
-Therefore it is necessary to look at feminism through a poststructural perspective. We can de-construct different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women e.g. art, medicine, science, religion, pornography etc.
-By rejecting essentialism and stressing diversity, we can recognise and legitimise the different struggles women face rather than prioritizing some and excluding others.

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Acknowledges the importance of recognising differences amongst women and that not all women have the same experiences of inequality.
-Considers that oppression can come from other women.
-->Limitations:
-Walby (1992) - there are important similarities amongst women which need to be considered e.g. all women are faced with patriarchy.
-Celebrating differences can lead to women being divided into an infinite number of subgroups, making it harder to effect change.
-Abandons any notion of real, objective social structures (Segal, 1999) - oppression is real inequality and need to focus on this.

4-Realism

-->What is Realism?
-Realists seek to prove that crime is a real issue- meaning it should be tackled, rather than theorised. With this, Realists acknowledge the rise in crime rates, the fear societies have of crime rising and its impact on victims. Existing sociological theories do not offer realistic solutions.

left and right realism

-->LEFT: Developed 1980s+
-Structural explanations
-Concerned about the following social groups:
-Ethnic minorities
-Working class
-Marginalised groups that are deemed more criminal
-->RIGHT: Developed 1970s+
-Cultural explanations
-Concerned about:
-Law abiding citizens
-Orderly society
-The nuclear family

Left Realists

-Stuart Hall
-John Lea
-Jock Young

Left Realism

-->Marxism:
-Marxism acknowledges class conflict and the impact of a structured society on the behaviour of the individual.
-->Neo-Marxism:
-Neo- Marxism acknowledges contemporary consciousness surrounding class conflict and the impact of structured society on the individual.
-->Interactionism/Labelling:
-Interactionists acknowledges the impact of labelling on the individual.

Structural explanations

-Left Realists tend to focus on marginalised groups in society
-This is because they often face the most discrimination, thus blocked opportunities which impact their experience of society
-This also impacts their contributions to society

Left Realism aligns itself with (New) Labour

-->The Labour Party:
-The Labour Party aimed to support and lobby for the working class as a socialist party.
-This was an era when the working class were more than likely to work in manual jobs- especially coal mining.
-As the Labour Party were interested in supporting the needs of the working class, many of their policies reflected this.
-This is because the Labour Party made it clear that the working class are the cornerstones of society. Without them, society would not thrive.

New Labour

-After political defeat by the Conservatives, New Labour was forced to reconstruct its identity, and ideology
-1997 saw a New Labour, which focused on reducing inequality and providing opportunities for the marginalised
-This was achieved through policies such as EMA and the use of milk tokens.

So what is the link between this political ideology and Sociological theory?

-Often, political policies impact marginalised groups, negatively
-The working class are unfairly targeted, especially when tackling crime
-However, not much has been done to eradicate other factors of social inequality
-According to Left Realists, it's the social inequality and the frustration of these structural barriers that impact the experience of marginalised groups

Evaluation

-->Pros:
-Does not just highlight issues with the theories - also attempts to offer solutions to support marginalised groups.
-Draws on ideas from a range of sociological theories - means that they are considering multiple elements that may contribute to the behaviour of marginalised groups in society.
-->Cons:
-Ignores the role of gender which feminists criticise e.g. if opppression and lack of opportunity leads to crime, why are male statistics higher than female?
-Too idealistic - whilst they attempt to offer solutions, they are not clear on how they would work and if this would actually improve matters in society.

Right Realism

-->1970s +
-Right realism approaches crime from a New Right perspective
-Therefore, explanations and solutions will reflect the views of conservative/ new right political parties
-Solutions are political based, with emphasis on individuality, the family and biological disposition

Right Realism in Western Society

-Republicans
-Right Realism arguably gained its significance in America as of the late 1970's
-This was based on the apparent socio-economic class divide within the States
-As America is a meritocratic society, those who are unable to keep up, are left on the waste side
-In America, marginalised groups are often to blame for rising epidemics, according to Right Realists
-The spread of drug use, gun crime, dysfunctional families and diseases are features of the American UnderclassConservatives. (FENTANYL OVERUSE)

Conservatives

-Margaret Thatcher were one of the many Prime Ministers/ MPs that supported and enforced Right Realist ideology
-Similarly to Republicans, the Underclass are the cause of social issues- the fall of the economy, drug use and unemployment
-By Incorporating a Lassaiz-faire (letting things take their course) approach, this will ensure that a dependency culture no longer exists
-Individuals should 'pull the strings of their bootstraps' and get on with it
-But as a result, this ideology caused further conflict within 1980s Britain
-Britons were split between supporting or opposing Right Realism as both saw benefits and limitations

So what is the link between this political ideology and Sociological theory?

-->Charles Murray: Underclass
-The Underclass reinforces a culture of poverty
-Thus undermining hard work and true 'British Values'
-As a result, producing deviant and criminal values rather than the mainstream
-Single mothers and feckless fathers are to blame
-Therefore government policies should reflect this by no longer subsidising this growing subculture
-->David Marsland: Dependency Culture
-The Welfare State is responsible for the emergence of the underclass
-British society have caused individuals to depend on the Nanny State
-Thus resulting in irresponsible members of society
-->Clarke (1980): Rational choice theory
-As with all other New Right explanations, individuals have rational choice
-These premediated choices are based on risk vs reward
-The decision to commit crime is based on a rational calculation of consequences
-This explanation also suggests why the working class are marginalised
-Therefore, the only responsibility the Government have, is to continue to reinforce social control and social order.
-->HATTEN GARDEN THIEFT AS A CONTEMPORARY EXAMPLE

Hirschi- Control Thesis

-->According to New Right sociologist, Hirschi, dysfunctional individuals lack the following:
-Attachment- Family and relationships
-Commitment- People may lose a great deal
-Involvement- Engaged in communities and society
-Belief- Norms and values influencing and guiding them

Evaluation

-->Strengths:
-Aim to reduce opportunities for taking advantage of the government.
-Does attempt to offer more realistic solutions to behaviours like crime.
-->Limitations:
-Victim-blaming approach - does not recognise how the structure of society has blocked opportunities for the marginalized in society.
-Policies often target the most vulnerable in society rather than helping them.

5-Modernity

-->Renaissance: Appreciation of emotion and theism. 14th – 17th Century

-->Enlightenment: Questioning tradition (age of reason). 18th Century

-->Modernity: Structure and reason. 19th – 20th Century

Natural Sciences: Studying the physical world

-Thinkers of the Enlightenment Period believed in natural sciences

-Natural sciences would produce true and objective knowledge

-This means that with using natural sciences, we are able to progress as a society and improve humanity- for the betterment of humans

-Modernity refers to a particular era in human history. It is an era characterised by scientific thought (rather than supernatural belief), individualism, a focus on industrialisation and technical development and a rejection of some traditional values.

What are the features of Modernity?

-->Individualism:

-tradition, custom and ascribed status become less important as the basis for our actions

-Individualism experience greater personal freedom and can increasingly choose our own course in life and define our own identity

-However, structural inequalities such as class remain important in shaping people’s identity and restricting their choices.

-->Science and Technology:

-Rational scientific explanations dominate whilst religious explanations decline. Science is important to modern industries (factories, bureaucracies, medicine)

-->Nationalism:

-Key political unit in modern society bounded territory ruled by a powerful centralised state whose population usually shares the same language and culture

-The state is the focal point of modern society organising social life on a national basis

-Modern states have created large administrative bureaucracy and educational welfare and legal institutions to regulate their citizens lives

-->Capitalism:

-Modern economy is capitalist - based hugely on private ownership

-Brought about industrialisation, which caused unequal distribution of wealth & therefore class conflict Govt regulate capitalism and maintains order Lash & Urry (1987,1994) describes above as ‘organised capitalism’

-Modern industry sees more fordist principles e.g cheap mass produced consumer goods

-Allows for a rise in standards of living - more people are able to afford goods e.g Ford’s cars

So what is the difference between modernity and postmodernism?

-->Modernism:

-Based on how we thought the world was going to be

-However, society had changed after WWII

-Therefore, new changes had to be made

-Many of the changes were man made and structural

-This means that modernists would not have been able to fathom any other type of change that wasn’t from structure

-->Postmodernism:

-Created between the 1970s and 80s

-Based on the idea that we live in a ‘new’, ‘technological’ world

-We are all connected through Globalisation

-That means, the issues that we had before in society, will be different today

-Because of this, we cannot ignore the impact of change and development

Four significant changes that Globalisation has caused

-Technological:

-Can cross entire continents in a matter of hours or exchange information with click of a button.

-Time-space compression, caused by technology such as satellites, has reduced distance between people.

-Also brings global scale risks e.g. climate change.

Beck (1992) - risk society - threats increasingly are man-made rather than natural.

-Economic:

-Global economy is becoming more ‘weightless’.

-Exchange of goods is much more electric, and involves less physical goods, instead sharing information such as tv, music etc.

-Money never sleeps - there is the possibility of instant transfers 24 hours a day in pursuit of profit - further contributing to risk society.

-Political:

-Globalisation has undermined the nation-state.

-We now live in a ‘borderless world’ - Kenichi Ohmae (1994).

TNCs + consumers have more power than governments.

-States are less able to regulate capitalist enterprises - leading to disorganised capitalism - Lash + Urry.

-Culture + Identity:

-It is much harder for cultures to exist in isolation from each other, due to the role of ICT, particularly mass media.

-Living in a global culture, where Western-owned media companies spread Western culture to the rest of the world.

-Economic integration also encourages global culture, as well as undermining things like class.

Postmodernism

-Because of the rapid changes in society, we must adapt our thinking to match current knowledge

-Postmodernism sees society as unstable, fragmented, media- saturated

-It is hard to distinguish between reality and image

-They believe that society has taken different parts of the perspectives and places them in their life. They choose what idea of the perspective that suits them and implements that in their life.

Michel Foucault (1980)

-There is no foundation to knowledge

-Knowledge is what we know and information that we spread

-However, there is no objective criteria

-->Evaluation:

-This contradicts the existence of the Enlightenment and its impact on Sociology

-If we do take this theory into account, then this means we should ignore all perspectives in Sociology- including Postmodernism

Meta- Narratives

-Meta- narrative= the big story

-Postmodernists believe that Marxism holds a meta- narrative

Postmodernists reject this as this has created oppressive totalitarian nations

-How is this possible?

-Former Soviet Union - the state’s attempt to re-mould society on Marxist principles led to political repression + slave labour camps.

-Meta-narratives therefore are rejected by postmodernists, as they argue that as society is now changing so rapidly, societies can no longer be understood through the application of general theories like Marxism. Metanarratives are just someone’s version of the truth.

Contemporary example: Castro's Cuba

-In light of Fidel Castro's death, many narratives have been opened in 'exposing' life in Cuba under Castro's regime
Castro has been known to adopt the Marxist approach, implementing this in his ruling of Cuba
-Although Cuba is considered to be one of the last successful Communist societies due to its world renowned education and health system, its success has been questioned a lot over the last decades

Lyotard (1992)

-Knowledge is not truth

-Knowledge is just a series of different ‘language games’

-What does this mean?

-Different ways of seeing the world

-Postmodernism allows marginalised groups to be heard

-Postmodernists do not claim a monopoly of truths- which is what all the other perspectives do

Baudrillard (1983)

-Knowledge is central to postmodern society

-However, society is no longer dependent on material goods

-Instead, we buy and sell knowledge through images and signs

-These images and signs are no longer related to physical society

Simulacra

-->Simulacra- images which appear to reflect events in the real world but have no basis in reality, and which are viewed simultaneously across the globe e.g. if a missile hits a target, we do not see the reality but instead watch a simulacrum of the real event.

-->There are three stages to simulacra:

1. The inability to distinguish between ‘real’ and replica copies

2. The mass production of copies making it even harder to distinguish between ‘real’ and fake

3. Entering a realm or representations of representations- no longer looking for tangible evidence of ‘real’, but rather, accepting the representation of it

Hyper-reality

-The distorted view of the world which is actually created and defined by the media.

-The media image becomes more real than the reality it is meant to be depicting e.g. celebrities becoming famous for not doing anything, but for for no other reason than being made famous by the media.

-->For example:

-Total Recall reflects on the idea that our reality is shaped by our own sharing of knowledge and image

-In Total Recall, reality is warped- we cannot tell the difference between what is real reality. A bit like the Matrix

-Some things appear to be real, because we have changed our mind to think so

Postmodernists also refer to the many different 'worlds' we explore as evidence of hyperreality in a Postmodern society.

-Gossip magazines and newspapers do not inform us

-But are rather signs about signs

-->What does this mean?

-There is no real story behind what they are writing about. They just highlight another sign or symbol

Postmodern Identities

-Baudrillard sees life in postmodernity involving the search for satisfaction of media-created desires, and pressures to consume, with individual identity and behaviour no longer formed predominantly by factors such as class, gender, or ethnicity, but by information, images and signs like designer labels gained by the media.
-The media present to us choice of lifestyles, images and identities drawn from across the world.
-New identities are created as people adopt different identities based on consumer lifestyles.
-People identify with a whole range of elements, which they can pick 'n' mix to create their desired identity.

Marxist theory of Postmodernity

-->Jameson (1984) and Harvey (1989):

-Society has transitioned from modernity to postmodernity

-However, these changes are signs of a new stage in capitalism

1. Flexible accumulation

-Also known as post- Fordism

-This is the use of information technology, job insecurity and the expectation of employees meeting consumer needs

Eg: Couriers: For Marxists, this is a sign of postmodernity as it reflects postmodern changes: diversity, choice and instability

2. Politics and progress

-Postmodernity has brought political change

-The working class are weaker

-A variety of ideologies and oppositional movements have emerged, causing further instability and confusion

What could this mean? However, this could also mean ‘rainbow alliances’ could develop- new ideologies supporting a new wave of Marxism

Evaluation

-->Strengths

-Make some important points about contemporary society e.g., the significance of media for culture and identity.

-Emphasises that the construction of identity has become more fluid and complex e.g. pick ‘n’ mix identities based on consumer lifestyles + global media imagery.

-->Limitations

-Philo + Miller (2001): postmodernism ignores power and inequality, postmodernism is wrong to claim people cannot distinguish between reality and media image, by assuming all views are equally true it becomes just as valid to deny the Holocaust as it does to affirm it, which is morally indefensible.

-Postmodernism fails to explain how some of the most important features of society came about e.g. the media (Best + Kellner, 1991).

6. Social Action Theory

-->Late Modernity

-Reflexivity-Giddens

-Reflecting on new changes, this, however is known as high modernity

-In high modern society, tradition and customs have become less important

-Disembedding- Giddens

-Breaking down barriers to make interaction more personal

-By disembedding, we change how society communicates and shares knowledge

-Global Risk society- Beck (1992)

-Late modernity= growing individualisation

-Leading to being reflexive

-Risk consciousness- Beck

-According to Beck, risk consciousness is central to our culture

-It is embedded and practised frequently

Social Action Theories

-->Interactionism/ Weberism

-Symbolic Interactionism

-Ethnomethodology

-Structuration

-Phenomenology

-Social action theories use a bottom- up, micro perspective when explaining phenomena. Because of this, social action theories are not structural/conflict theories.

Each theory looks at actions of individuals and its impact on society

Social Action/ Interactionism

-->Weber (1864- 1920)

-Social action theorists are also known as interactionists

-They focus on micro research and are interested in individual experiences (and/ or thoughts and feelings)

-For Weber, in order to understand human behaviour, there are two levels to consider:

-Level of cause: Explaining the objective structural factors that shape people’s behaviour aka what external factors are causing the behaviour

-Level of meaning: Understanding the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions aka understanding how individuals interpret their actions

According to Weber, there are four different types of social action- AVIT!

-->Affectual Action: Actions that expresses emotion. Useful for gaining emotional appeal as a public figure/ leader

-->Value- rational action: Actions towards a goal that the actor regards as desirable (like a means to an end)

-->Instrumentally rational action: Rational form of action where actions are calculated to achieve goal

-->Traditional Action: Action that is custom or out of habit

Evaluation

-Pros: Valuable in correcting the over-emphasis of structural factors seen in functionalism and Marxism - affirms must understand the actor’s subjective meanings to understand behaviour.

-Cons: Too individualistic - cannot explain the shared nature of meanings. Difficult to apply typology of action e.g. some behaviours fit more than one category.

Symbolic interactionism- focuses on the fact that society is actively shaped by individuals and the meanings they attach to situations/ ordinary things

-->Mead:

-Every aspect of communication/ every action is symbolic

-There is a stage between the receipt of the action and our response to the action

-Therefore the emphasis is on how we interpret the initial reaction before we respond

-->Blumer:

-Supports Mead

-Claims there are three principles to Interactionism:

-Actions based on our interpretations and labels we attach to it

-Meanings coming from interactions that can be changed

-Meanings attached to situations as a result of us ‘taking the role’

-->Labelling theory:

-Exactly the same theory in Education and Crime and Deviance

-Powerful groups attach labels to the minority/ deviant

-Thomas (1966): If we define situation as real, then it becomes real. Labelling has a great impact on our interpretation

-->Dramaturgical-Goffman:

-Life is a stage and we are all ‘actors’

-Each ‘stage’ requires different ‘actions’

Evaluation

-->Pros:

-Avoids the determinism of structural theories such as functionalism.

-Recognises that people create society through their choices and meanings.

-->Cons:

-More loose collection of concepts than explanatory theory.

-Focuses on face-to-face interactions, ignores wider social structures e.g. inequality, and fails to explain origin of labels. -Cannot explain the consistent patterns we observe in behaviour.

-Lacks an idea of structure - Reynolds (1975) - research showed many interactionists did not identify power or class as essential to interactionism, despite their arguing it is crucial.

Phenomenology- focuses on how things appear based on our senses. Everything is subjective based on this. We communicate/ interact based on how we talk about our interpretation of society with our senses (discourse). This solidifies our reality

-Husserl: Things only make sense because we attach the meaning to it. Otherwise, it would literally mean ‘nothing’

-Schutz: Typifications allow us to categorise experiences into a shared meaning

-Each typificiation depends on context

-However it is fluid and can changed once differences are acknowledges

-This can be seen as a good thing as it suggests that typifications are stabilised- they clarify meanings by ensuring we all speak the same language

Life world

-Schutz

-According to Schutz, we share a life world

-This is a stock of shared typifications or commonsense knowledge which help humans with their life experience

-Our shared typifications that guide us through life is known as ‘recipe knowledge’

The natural attitude

-Although society looks real, doesn’t necessarily means it is.

-Schutz acknowledges that there are physical items that can suggest we live in a real world, however, our actions attached to these objects lead us to believe that it is all real. The world is a real thing, but society is constructed - people see this as real too.

-This is known as the natural attitude as it leads us to assume that the social world is a natural and solid place with stability and order. In reality, it is simply a jumble of individual experiences with no clear shape or form.

-->For example:

-A person sending a letter assumes another person will recognise the paper as a letter and deliver it to the address on the envelope.

Evaluation

-->Pros:

-Evidence in contemporary society for shared meanings of actions etc.

-Functionalists - encourages social solidarity.

-->Cons:

-Commonsense knowledge may not be the same across cultures and time periods - not all meanings are shared universally.

-Berger and Luckmann argue that whilst reality is socially constructed, once it has been constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality that reacts back on us e.g. religious beliefs.

Ethnomethodology

-->Garfinkel (1967):

-Acknowledges social order, like Functionalists

-However, rejects that society has a ‘real’ objective structure

-This is because social order works ‘bottom up’

-Therefore, if interactions change from a micro scale, this will change social order inevitably

-Proving that there is no real, rigid structure

-Things without a fixed meaning is known as indexicality

Garfinkel proves this by ‘breaching experiments’- challenging social norms and changing them in each instance

Evaluation

-->Pros:

-Draws attention to how we actively construct order and meaning rather than seeing us as puppets of the social system.

-->Cons:

-Craib - findings are trivial. Spend a lot of time ‘uncovering’ taken-for-granted rules that are a surprise for nobody e.g. on phone call only one person speaks at a time.

-Argues everyone creates order and meaning by identifying patterns and producing explanations that are essentially fictions - but this must apply to ethnomethodology itself.

Structuration

-->Giddens:

-Combines two approaches into one theory of structure and action

-There is a duality of structure- it is more than abiding by social norms

-Structure without agency (free will/ action) and vice versa, will not work

-Meaning, society will not work

Structure and Action

-->Reproduction of structures through agency:

-For Giddens, there are two elements to structure.

-These two elements can be reproduced or changed through human action.

-This is significant, as it helps to explain why we have structure and to what extent it influences the individual.

-However, Giddens also recognises that although our actions change existing structures, it also reproduces this.

-That being said, individuals use ‘reflexive monitoring’- reflecting and reviewing actions frequently. Therefore, if an action needs to change, it will happen.

-In regards to the impact of the world, although action does promote change, this is not always done intentionally.

Usefulness

-->Rules- Norms, Values, Customs- Contains ‘stock of knowledge’ / recipe (commonsense). Dictates how we earn a living, how to shop etc

-->Resources-Economic resources (materials, technology)

Sources of power- Used to assist us in carrying out these rules,

Money enables us to exercise the recipe of shopping

Evaluation

-->Pros:

-Attempts to overcome division between structure + action in sociological theory.

-->Cons:

-Implies actors can change structures simply by deciding to do so - Archer argues that he underestimates capacity of structure to resist change.

-It isn’t really a theory according to Craib - doesn’t explain what happens in society, just describes what we will find when studying society.

7. Social Policy

-In order to solve social problems identified in perspectives and theories, policies need to be implemented
-Often social policies are directly influenced by sociological perspectives and ideologies
-This also includes the use of research methods to support these policies, as well as to monitor its effectiveness and regulate the quality

Social problems

-->Worsley (1977):

-To understand the significance of social policy, we must be able to distinguish between social problems, and sociological problems. The difference between the two, will indicate how we tackle such issues.

-Education, poverty and unemployment are often regarded as social issues, therefore the government should be called to tackle it

-Behaviour that we want to make sense of:

-Sociological problems focus on ‘normal behaviour’ and why people behave in such ways

-Not necessarily a ‘problem’, just something worth uncovering

-Hence why sociologists are interested in phenomena

Factors impacting Social Policy in Government- PETs

Funding solutions: Sociologists may tone down their study to ensure that they get funding or may lean towards the political ideology that they are working for ie. Think tanks.

Electoral popularity: Research findings and recommendations might point to a policy that may be unpopular with voters.

Ideological and policy preferences of governments: If it reflects the political ideology, it is more likely to influence the policy

Interest groups: Pressure groups working on their own agenda.

Globalisation: Must match rules and regulation of international groups eg. UN

Critical Sociology: Critical/ conflict sociologists are less likely to have a policy implemented, due to being too ‘harsh’

Cost: Even if the government like the study, money must be set aside to create/ fund the policy

Evaluation

-->Large extent

-Interest groups - the more pressure, the more likely a policy is to be put into place.

-Funding sources - allows for the basis of research, which is the justification for policy.

-->Small extent

-Policies have limited power based on who creates them - will only benefit minority groups to a small extent.

Perspectives on social policy and sociology

-->Positivism and Functionalism:

-Comte and Durkheim started Sociology as a science

-Meaning all findings were scientific

-This also meant that social problems could be ‘solved’ scientifically

-The state should be provided objective and factual information

-->Impact:

-Medical research

-Suggesting/ shaping policy, rather than using force

-‘Piecemeal social engineering’- cautious approach of tackling social issues one at a time