Cognitive approach studies

Glanzer and cunitz: aim

To investigiate the primacy/ recency effecy and the role of rehearsal on memory.

Glanzer and cunitz: method

Participants presented with lists of words one at a time, they could recall the words in any order.

Glanzer and cunitz: IV

Presence or absence of a 30 second 'distraction task'

Glanzer and cunitz: DV

Number of words correctly recalled from the different positions in the list

Glanzer and cunitz: condition 1

Half of the participants were asked to recall the words immediately after presentation

Glanzer and cunitz: condition 2

Half of the participants counted backwards for 30 seconds before recalling the words

Glanzer and cunitz: participants

240 US army enlisted males

Glanzer and cunitz: results 1

Participants had higher recall on items at the start of the list (primacy effect)

Glanzer and cunitz: result 2

Participants had higher recall on items at the end of the list (recency effect)

Glanzer and cunitz: result 3

Paticipants who had the 30 s distraction task were effected only in recency (interferes with rehearsal processes)

Glanzer and cunitz: conclusion

Words remembered at the beginning of the list have already been stored in the LTS allowing them to be recalled

Glanzer and cunitz: conclusion

Words at the end of the list are still in the STS allowing them to be recalled

Glanzer and cunitz: conclusion

The distraction task reduces recency effect as it interferes with the rehearsal process of the STS

Glanzer and cunitz: critical thinking

Reductionist/ isolation manipulation and measurement high internal validity/

Paulesu et al: aim

Relationship between components of working memory and localising to the brain

Paulesu et al: method

Pet scan used to measure function in areas of the brain, task designed for the Broadman area 40 and 44, 6 unique sounding letting in a second

Paulesu et al: participants

6 left handed European males (by sex not gender)

Paulesu et al: IV

Sex, culture and dexterity of participants

Paulesu et al: DV

Rhyming the letter with B or not rhyming at all

Paulesu et al: condition 1

Memory condition: 6 individual letters for one second with time to rehearse silently for 2 seconds designed to activate phonological loop

Paulesu et al: condition 2

Rhyming condition: 1 letter challenged whether it rhymed with B designed to activate articulatory loop

Paulesu et al: control condition

Korean letters were presented

Paulesu et al: results 1

Increased activity in two separate areas of the brain BA 44 and BA40 (phonological loop)

Paulesu et al: results 2

Increased activity only in BA44 ( articulatory loop)

Paulesu et al: conclusion

BA44 is involved in the rehearsal process associated with the articulatory control process (rehearsal of verbal information on loop)

Paulesu et al: FK

Articulatory control process can be correlated with multiple neural locations suggesting its existence is rooted in biology, increasing the validity of the model as the physical biology can be tested for

Paulesu et al: limitations

Memory is complex and deeply personal and thus model lacks generalisability

Paulesu et al: limitations

Debate surrounding STS suggest more then one cognitive explanation for complex human behaviours like working memory

Cohen: aim

The relationship between schematic processing and memory

Cohen: method

Participants watched a video of a woman having a birthday dinner, woman had both characteristics of a librarian and a waitress, half of the participants were told she was a librarian the other half a waitress they were then asked to recall information from the video.

Cohen: participants

96 American college undergraduate students

Cohen: results

Participants were more likely to rember schematic consistent information, librarian group liking books and classical music, waitress group playing guitar and drinking beer

Cohen: conclusion

People are more likely to recall schema consistent stereotypes and ignore contradictory information.

Loftus and palmer: aim

If language used in testimony can alter recall

Loftus and palmer: method

7 films of a traffic accident ranging from 5 to 30 seconds, participants were asked the speed of the cars when they (smashed/ collided/ bumped/ hit / contacted)

Loftus and palmer: participants

45 American students from the university of Washington

Loftus and palmer: IV

The leading verb in the question

Loftus and palmer: DV

The speed reported by the participants

Loftus and palmer: results

Estimated speed was affected by the leading verb used: smashed (40.8mph) contacted(31.8mph)

Loftus and palmer: conclusion

The verb created a scheme about speed which influenced participant memory of the event

Loftus and palmer (1978): aim

To test the creation of false memories

Loftus and palmer (1978): method

Participants were shown a 1 minute film of a car driving through a country side followed by 4 seconds of traffic accidents

Loftus and palmer (1978): participants

150 students split in thirds

loftus and palmer (1978): IV

The leading verb in question

Loftus and palmer (1978): DV

False memory operationalised by whether the participants recalled broken glass

Loftus and palmer (1978): method (F)

Participants were asked if they saw broken glass a week later, there was no broken glass on the film.

Loftus and palmer (1978): results

Smashed:16 bg 34 ng, Hit: 4 bg 43 ng, Control: 6 bg 44 ng

Loftus and palmer (1978): conclusion

Emotionally intense verbs had created a false memory of seeing broken glass where there was no broken glass present

Kahneman and tversky (1983): aim

To test for assumption based on characteristics

Kahnema and tversky (1983): method

'Linda is a 31 year old single outspoken and very bright, she majored in philosophy. As a students was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice and also participation in the anti war movement’

Kahneman and Tversky: method 2

What is more statistically probable?: Linda is a bank teller, Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.

Linda was constructed to be representative of an active feminist and unrepresentative of a bank teller.

Kahneman and Tversky: results

90% of participatants believed that Linda was more likely to be active on the feminist movement and a bank teller then just the bank teller

Kahneman and Tversky: participants

88 statistically naive (undergraduates), informed (graduates) and sophisticated (PHD candidates)

Kahneman and tversky: conclusion

Naïve, informed and sophisticated users of statistics were inclined to make incorrect decisions, system 1 thinking overrode system 2 thinking

Bêchera et al (2000): aim

To compare decision making of participants with damage to their ventromedial prefrontal cortices (vmPFC) with healthy controls. The vmPFC has been shown in other research to control impulsive behaviour

Bechera et al: IV

Participants with damage to their ventromedial prefrontal cortices

Bechera et al: DV

Iowa gambling task amount of money participants gained

Bechera et al: method

Four stacks of cards, player can turn over a card from any stack the goal is to end with as much money as possible. The cards are not stacked evenly and good and bad decks exist.

Bechera et al: good decks

Less rewards but less penalties so the overall rewards are greater

Bechera et al: bad decks

Larger rewards but greater penalties so the overall reward are less

Bechera et al: method II

As the game progresses the trends of each stack become clear

Bechera et al: results

People with damaged to the prefrontal cortex to not adept to choose the good decks

Bechera et al: conclusion

The vmPFC allows individuals to use system 2 processing

Bechera et al: limitations

Different relationships to money, isolated quasi

Bechera et al: alt study

Lin et al: have argue of two bad decks, one bad deck did not stop normal decision making and did not trigger avoidance of that deck under uncertainty of its anchor goodness. IGT does fully explain thinking and decision making in a simple, linear way

Bechera et al: Chiu et al

Created soochow gambling task (SGT) which demonstrated reverse finding, normal decision makers (system 2) were mostly occupied with the gain

Bechera et al: dual model limitations

Phillips et al showed not increasing accuracy in intuitive thinking from a sample of 17,704

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959): aim

Forcing cognitive dissonance through dull tasks

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959): method

Performing a dull task for an hour, then with financial insensitive being asked to promote or convince the task onto someone in the waiting room.

Festinger and Carlsmith: participants

71 male students

Festinger and Carlsmith: cognitive method

They established cognitive dissonance and then measure the cognitive dissonance by use of questionnaire. The level of dissonance was controlled by the monetary reward given.

Festinger and Carlsmith: Results

Participants paid the leat amount rated tedious task as more fun

Festinger and Carlsmith: conclusion

Dissonance of boring job for little reward, they had to convince themselves and the other participant that it was fun compared to the $20 reward.

Izuma et al (2015): aim

Investigate posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC) in cognitive dissonance

Izuma et al: method

Computer wallpapers rated on an 8 point scale, wallpapers were subtly switched, noticing participants were removed from the study. Participants were presented with prior images with the labels ‘you chose/rejected this’ cognitive dissonance induced from participants being led to believe they rejected their preferred option, participants filled out a consistency scale to test self perception.

Izuma et al: participants

52 mixed gender participants

Izuma et al: conditions

TMS group whereby pMFC was stimulated, sham TMS group where no stimulation was administered, TMS stimulation administer to another part of the brain

Izuma et al: IV

TMS stimulation of specifically the pMFC

Izuma et al: DV

Desire to be consistent

Izuma et al: results

When pMFC was stimulated desire for consistency went down

Izuma et al: conclusion

The stimulation of the pMFC reduces cognitive dissonance thus there’s a localised biological basis for cognitive dissonance

Sharot et al: aim

To investigate if flashbulb memories are distinct memories and whether there are underlying brain mechanisms linked with FBM.

Sharot et al: method

Cues indicative of 9/11 where presented ‘summer, ‘September’ and press button after memory fully retrieved they were asked to recall memories in the 6 features of an FBM

Sharot et al: DV

FBM ratings

Sharot et al: IV 1

Word presented ‘September’ or ‘Summer’

Sharot et al: IV2

Location of the participants at the time of the attack downtown or midtown manhattan

Sharot et al: results

Down town participants demonstrated activation of the amygdala for 9/11 but not for the control events the recalls were emotionally enhanced for 9/11 but not for control events. The amygdala was more active for the downtown group than midtown group.

Sharot et al: conclusion

Personal experience is important for the development of FBM’s. The amygdala moderates emotional memory and stress responses to emotional memories.

Sharot et al: temporal

2004, 3 years immediately after the event

Sharot et al: participants

24 New Yorkers present for 9/11

Sharot et al: limitations

Highly covered international event, specificity to certain high profile events and lacks generalisability to other cultures

Kulfosky et al (2011): aim

Investigate personal importance, intensity of emotions, surprise and recall would vary across cultures

Kulfosky et al: method

Particiapants were asked to recall events form their lifetime then completed a memory questionaire of 5 FBM inducing questions. (What when how who why)

Kulfosky