Intro to Linguistics

bilabial

[p], [b], [m]- place of articulation

labiodental

[f], [v]- place of articulation

interdental

[ð], [θ]- place of articulation

alveolar

[t], [s], [r], [l], [ɾ]- place of articulation

palatal

[∫], [t∫], [ʒ], [dʒ], [j] - place of articulation

velar

[k], [g], [ŋ]- place of articulation

glottal

[h], [ʔ]- place of articulation

stop

[b], [p], [t], [d], [k], [g], [ʔ]- manner of articulation

fricative

[f],[v], [s], [z], [h], [ð], [θ], [ʒ], [∫]- manner of articulation

affricate

[t∫], [dʒ]- manner of articulation

nasal

[m], [n], [ŋ]- manner of articulation

lateral liquid

[l]- manner of articulation

retroflex liquid

[r]- manner of articulation

glide

[j], [w]- manner of articulation

flap

[ɾ]- manner of articulation

[i]

high front tense unrounded vowel

[ɪ]

high front lax unrounded vowel

[ɛ]

mid front lax unrounded vowel

[æ]

low front lax unrounded vowel

[ə]

mid central lax unrounded unstressed vowel

[ʌ]

mid central lax unrounded stressed vowel

[u]

high back tense rounded vowel

[ʊ]

high back lax rounded vowel

[ɔ]

mid back lax rounded vowel

[ɑ]

low back lax unrounded vowel

phonetics

study of speech sounds, how they are produced, and what their physical properties are

phonology

study of how sounds combine in language, how they are memorized, how mental forms translate into physical speech sounds

phonemes

mental representations of speech sounds

minimal pairs

words that have different meaning but only differ by one sound

allophone

one of a set of nondistinctive realizations of the same morpheme

alternation

a way of finding allophones, a single lexical root expressed in two different word forms and two distinct sounds

contrastive distribution

two sounds can occur in the same environment but results in meaning difference

complementary distribution

allophones, two sounds can occur in same environment and don't change meaning but are predicted by phonological rules

free variation

two sounds can occur in the same environment and don't result in meaning difference but are based on accent of speaker

alveolar stop assimilation

I can see [kæn si] vs. I can bake [kæm beɪk]

natural class

group of sounds that shares similar characteristics (manner, place, voicing) and similar behaviors

schwa insertion

in pluralization schwa is inserted before sibilant consonants

voicing assimilation

in pluralization [z] becomes [s] before voiceless consonant

palatalization

type of assimilation in which consonant becomes like a neighboring palatal [dɪdʒu]

vowel harmony

causes all the vowels in a word to agree in some property- like roundness or backness

dissimilation

causes two close or adjacent sounds to become less alike with respect to some property by means of a change in one or both sounds

insertion

causes a segment not present in a phonemic level to be added to the phonetic form of a word

voiceless stop insertion

hamster = [hampster]

deletion

eliminates a sound that was present at the phonemic level in casual speech (h-deletion)

metathesis

changes the order of sounds, consonants and vowels switch places when the word ends with a consonant and the next word starts with a consonant

strengthening

makes a sounds stronger

aspiration

voiceless stops become aspirated when they occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable

weaking

causes sounds to become weaker

flapping

an alveolar oral stop becomes [ɾ] after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed vowel

sibilant consonants

sounds that have high-pitched hissing sound quality

lexicon

mental dictionary of words in a language

morphology

analysis of word structure, how words are built from smaller pieces

morpheme

smallest meaningful unit in a language, make up words

root

last morpheme left standing after all affixes are removed

stem

the base to which a morphological process is applied, stem can contain more than one morpheme

free morpheme

morpheme that can occur on it's own

content morphemes

can form the root in a complex word

function morphemes

mark grammatical relation, closed to further affixation

bound morpheme

morpheme that can't occur with out an affix

inflectional affix

add grammatical information to a word- tense, aspect, number agreement, pluralization, comparativeness

derivational morpheme

added to an existing word to create another word- word has new meaning or different part-of-speech

affixation

morphological process that adds an affix to the stem

compounding

formation of new words by combining two or more free morphemes

reduplication

a morphological process by which the root or stem of a word is repeated

alternation

morphemes undergo internal modifications- geese,goose; ring, rang, rung

suppletion

when the root is replaced by another phonologically unrelated root- go, went; good, better, best

allomorphs

a single morpheme (one single meaning) realized in multiple phonetic forms- imbalance, inability, incomplete, irresponsible, illegible

analytic language

(language) limited or no morphological processes, relies on grammatical words and/or word order to encode grammatical relations

synthetic language

(language) relies on extensive morphological marking to encode grammatical relations

agglutinating language

(language) extensive use of bound morphemes for encoding grammatical relations

agglutination

morphemes are loosely put together with easily identifiable boundaries

fusional language

(language) bound morphemes are fused to the stem, affixes are not easily separable, root isn't a free standing word, single affix carries 2+ grammatical meanings

polysynthetic language

(language) noun markings are incorporated into the verb form

syntax

the study of the principles and the rules for combining words into sentences

lexical categories

aka part-of-speech, defined by a shared pattern of how they combine with other words/phrases in a sentence

adjective

requires a noun on its right or a be verb on its left

preposition

requires a noun phrase on its right

verb

requires a noun phrase on its left, some also require a noun phrase on its right

substitution test

to determine same/different lexical categories

agreement

certain words need to have a particular property in order to syntactically combine with another word- number, person, gender

structural ambiguity

a characteristic of phrases that have more than one possible semantic interpretation

constituent

grouping of words that form a discrete coherent syntactic unit

thematic role

governed by meaning of verb- agent, patient, instrument, theme experiencer, source, recipient

grammatical functions

subject, object; called an "argument"; governed by syntax

internal hierarchical structure

sentences aren't flat they have this:

open lexical categories

content words belong here, new words are easily added- nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs

closed lexical categories

function words belong here, hard for new words to be added- determiners, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, pronouns, conjunctions, complementizers

determiner

words expressing definiteness, indefiniteness, possession, quantity; requires a noun on its right; can't be stacked

complementizers

begins an embedded clause, relative clause, and question; require sentence-like phrase on their right: that, what, who, whether, whom, if

phrase

constituent involving one or more words

head of NP

noun or pronoun

head of VP

verb

head of PP

preposition

head of AdjP

adjective

recursion

fundamental property of human language, gives language its capacity to express unlimited number of ideas with limited resources

word order typology

SVO (English), SOV (Korean), VSO (Arabic)

head of a phrase

the central, obligatory member of the phrase

word meaning

needs to be learned and must be stored in memory

lexical semantics

concerns meaning of individual words and meaning relations between words

compositional semantics

concerns meaning of larger syntactic units (phrases and sentences); assumes the meaning of a larger unit derives from "composing" the meanings of smaller units