Adolescent Development - Exam 3

What is school climate?

What is school climate?

Quality and character of school life - based on patterns of students', parents' and school personnel's experience of school life

What main aspects of school climate are distinguished and measured by researchers?

• Safety:

• Rules and Norms

• Sense of Physical Security

• Sense of Social-Emotional Security

• Teaching and learning

• Support for Learning

• Social and Civic Learning

• Relationships

• Respect for Diversity,

• Social Support—Adults

• Social Support—Students

• External environment

• School Connectedness/Engagement

• Physical Surroundings

Why are aspects of school climate important

Students were better off in school where teachers
were supportive and involved with students

Applied firm discipline held high expectations for students' conduct and academic performance.

what difference does it make to the adolescent if their school scores high or low on any of these categories?

This kind of climate had..
higher achievement and attendance
low rates of problems compared with schools whose climate was not favourable

Where is school violence especially a problem?

- overcrowded schools in poor urban neighbourhoods & city schools.
- 1 in 4 students are victims (avg)
- Asian Americans are targeted - teacher's favouritism; they're smart

What are zero-tolerance policies?

- Fight? All involved are punished
- Administration cannot tell who started it - would have to rely on testimonies
- Becoming unuseful - nothing preventing violence bc all parties will be punished anyway

Discuss school shootings, how common they are, how/if you can predict the perpetrators of such violence, what can be done about it (security measures)?

Typically.. It is rare
- White Male
- Mentally unstable
- Access to guns
** Cannot be predicted - too general

Security measures:
Lockdowns
Metal detectors
Security officers & cameras

How do teacher expectations influence student achievement?

- high expectations and demand plus high responsiveness with caring (authoritative)
- Students respond better when attending schools that are responsive, demanding, and supportive

How do work values influence career choice?

Involves an integration of influences from one's past with hopes for the future - career maturity

What is Social & Civic Learning?

Creating good citizenships (morality & laws)
Ex. responsibility, integrity

What is Social-Support-Adults?

If teachers care about students

Explain what is included in "respect for diversity" and "social support - students"
categories of school climate measurement.

Respect for diversity
70% hear this "That is so gay"
Social support - students
Students among themselves
Peer monitoring

How is the best class climate like authoritative parenting? Which categories of school
climate measurement play into this?

focuses on being able to set limits between what interactions in the classroom are appropriate, sensitive, and warm.

What is School Connectedness (School Engagement)?

If the teacher has higher expectations? Students will perform better (self-fulfilling prophecy)
Do you feel connected to the school team (school events?)

What is Physical environment?

Is everything painted well or is the school messy?
Students will not want to go to schools with bad look (environment)

Why are staff and teachers included in the assessment of school climate? Explain the
categories of school climate that particularly apply to teachers & staff.

Support for learning, social and civic learning, social support- adults, professional relationships, leadership

• Support for Learning

• Social and Civic Learning

• Social Support-Adults

Who is generally responsible for taking action based on school climate assessment
reports?

SCHOOL
Improving student achievement by changing broader school climate, not on individual classrooms
if you improve school climate → student achievement will be better

• DSACS project Rutgers
  

• Comer School Development Program
  Components:
  Assessing school climate
  Coordinating with teachers, students, parents
  Making recommendations

What is John Holland's perspective on people's choices of occupational fields?

What are the categories he proposed, and how are these related to students and their occupational
choices?

Realistic - high physical strength & practical approach to problem solving (ex. Farming)
Investigative - math / science/ scientific
Artistic - performing arts
Social - High in verbal & social skills
Enterprising - Leaderships skills
Conventional - repetition, little leadership

What is the Self-directed search?

career interest test that asks questions about your aspirations, activities, skills, and interests in different jobs

How do parents influence the choice of careers? Be able to recognize examples of this.

Values
Encouragement of interests / exploration
Resources

How does self-efficacy affect choice of careers?

If you believe in yourself that they can make it (knowing your own ability)

What are work values?

The different sort of rewards individuals seek from their work

Explain Super's theory of occupational plan development as it relates to the development of adolescent's occupational plans.

Super's Theory - Occupational plans develop in stages
- Growth stage - childhood & early adolescence
- Exploration stage - mid-adolescence to mid-twenties
• Crystallization (ages 14 to 18)
• Specification (ages 18 to 21) - Implementation, Establishment, Maintenance, Decline

How has the proportion of adolescents attending college changed over the past century?

1900s: 4% 18-21 year olds in college
Today: 70% of high-school graduates enroll in college (two-thirds immediately after high school)

How accessible is college in the US in comparison to other countries?

-More diverse and accessible
- Europe's changing system

What are the approximate graduation rates for those enrolling in 4-year colleges after
6 years?

50% complete a degree within 6 years

Who are the "forgotten half"?

Those that don't go to high school, dropout of high school, don't have any skills

Secondary schools geared toward the college-bound
counselors trying to find you some type of college NOT trying to find the best career for you

Explain (in general) how apprenticeships work in Germany.

best system for matching people to careers
Adolescent "novice" serves under contract to a "master"

Germany's apprenticeship program includes over 60% of all 16- to 18-year-olds

Entry at age 16, with the apprenticeship lasting 2 to 3 years;
part-time schooling with the school curriculum closely connected to the training received in the apprenticeship; Training that takes place in the workplace

What are the 6 basic skills that non-college goers need for office and factory jobs?

1. Reading at a ninth-grade level or higher

2. Doing math at a ninth-grade level or higher

3. Solving semi-structured problems

4. Communicating orally and in writing

5. Using a computer for word processing & other tasks

6. Collaborating in diverse groups

What are (very generally) the differences in unemployment between HS dropouts, those with a HS diploma, those with some college, and those with a bachelor's degree?

People who are not in school, are not working, and are looking for a job
Europe and the US, unemployment rate for emerging adults is twice as high as for adults beyond age 25
no more high-paying, low-skilled manufacturing jobs existed
Majority of unemployed youth are HS dropouts
lowest unemployment rate for bachelor's and up

What is engagement with schooling? What is the general trend over the last few decades in engagement?

Engagement: the quality of being psychologically committed to learning

Research indicates that more and more, students are "physically present but psychologically absent"

Describe the combinations of concentration and motivation among various activities
that adolescents can be engaged in?

Structured leisure activities:
2/3 of students in extracurricular activities
Athletics most popular 50% = Most POSITIVE state
= motivated and very concentrated - the IDEAL pattern

Unstructured leisure time:
8 million not supervised by parents after school.
More arrests occur in school day afternoons

What extracurricular activities are most popular among American teens?

-Athletics most popular in the United States 50%• Other popular activities•
-Music (band, chorus, orchestra, glee club) 25%•
-Academic (science club, language clubs) 20%

What is the effect of involvement in extracurricular activities on achievement?

Participation in extracurricular activities benefits less competent students more than their academically talented counterparts

What are the factors related to problem behavior during unstructured leisure time?

• Eight million U.S. school-aged youngsters not supervised by parents after school.
• More arrests occur in school day afternoons
• Participation in extracurricular activities benefits less competent students more than their academically talented counterparts

What types of things can parents do to prevent problem behavior as a result of
unstructured leisure time?

-Parents' involvement in their adolescent child's education
• Parenting style: High demandingness and high responsiveness

Where in lies the influence that parents have over academic achievement in their
children? Recognise examples

Space to study, emotional support, value school → Prioritise education
No interest in schooling errands, child care takes priority → not caring about school

Parenting style: High demand and high responsiveness
Authoritative parenting style - Perform better and have a healthier approach to learning

The extent to which parents give you cultural capital: Talking about news, what is going on in the world, Taxes, economy, politics, how life works
Zoo, science museums

How do peers influence academic achievement? In what direction is the influence
(positive or negative?)

• Consistency of class attendance
• Time spent doing homework
• How hard they try
• Grades
• Adolescent friends with high achievement and aspirations support and encourage each other in school

How does work outside school influence academic achievement?

More work → lower grades, cutting class more, homework down, less sleep psychological symptoms work,

Eg. Straight to work afterschool → too tired to do hw when arriving home

What are the relationships between SES and academic achievement?

Compared to lower-class peers, middle-class adolescents:
- Score higher on basic tests of academic skills
- Earn higher grades in school
- Complete more years of schooling
reasons

Why particularly is achievement an adolescent issue?

Adolescents' beliefs about their abilities, goals and attributions influence their actual achievement, which, shapes their beliefs about their abilities

Explain how the stereotype threat beliefs work.

telling ethnic minorities or females or old people that their group typically does poorly on a certain kind of test results in lower scores on that tes

Explain why intrinsic motivation involves learning goals and extrinsic motivation
performance goals.

intrinsic-Strive to achieve because of the internal pleasure they get out of learning and mastering the material
extrinsic-Strive to achieve because of external rewards or punishment for performance

Explain how people's beliefs about the nature of intelligence can affect their achievement.

Attribute success to ability, failure to lack of effort
- Focused on learning goals
- Learned helplessness
- Entity view of ability
- cannot be changed - you don't have to try

• more common with sports
  

Attribute success to luck, failure to their ability
extremely destructive to learning - People tend to have this when it comes to academic skills

Explain the difference in attributions of success and failure in learned helplessness
and mastery orientation.

Learned helplessness
Attribute success to luck, failure to lack of ability
success: it was my lucky day, I happen to read the right notes
failure: I just can't do math/french
Mastery Orientation
Attribute success to ability, failure to lack of effort
success: I'm good at math
failure: I didn't study hard enough

How has the worker status of high school students changed in the past century?

Before 1925: in workforce by 15
Adolescents were either students or workers, not both
Proportion of HS students with part-time jobs rose dramatically 1940 - 1980
New jobs in retail trade and services (low wages, short shifts)

What is the relationship between work and school in nonindustrialised countries?

-Nonindustrialised societies
Work and family life less distinct
Integrated into the world of work before adolescence
Generally leave school at ages 15 or 16

What is the pattern of employment among adolescents in industrialised countries
other than the US?

• 75% U.S. HS juniors have jobs during the school year

• only 25% Japanese and Taiwanese juniors do
  

• Paid employment even rarer in most European countries
  

• Netherlands = very little people worked during school → only focus was/supposed to be school
  

• Structured apprenticeship programs in career-related jobs more common in other countries

What types of jobs do American adolescents have? What differences according to
age and gender?

-Younger teens: babysitting (girls) and yard work (boys)
-Older teens: Retail and service jobs (Boys -- manual labor, girls - service jobs)
-Rural regions: agricultural jobs

What are the characteristics of most of the jobs that American adolescents fill?

-Little or no contact with adults
Other workers also teenagers
Supervisor typically not much older
Many customers also teenagers

What are the 'benefits' that are supposed to accrue to those who have part-time
employment while in school?

Builds character, teaches them about the real world, prepares them for adulthood

What is the evidence that having part-time employment while in school increases
responsibility?

-Part time jobs improve an adolescent's ability to manage money, develop better social skills, and time management skills.
-Recent studies show benefits of working during adolescence have been overstated
NONE OF THIS IS TRUE
Premature affluence

What is the general trend in the relationship between hours worked in part-time
employment while in school and school performance?

Working more than 20 hours/week may jeopardise school performance

What is the evidence that part-time employment while in school "keeps kids out
of trouble"?

-Thought that working would keeping teens out of trouble → not the case
More hours correlates with more trouble
-Responsibility? - some people think that this is a benefit of employment

What are the suggested explanations for the association between work and
smoking, drinking and drug use?

Working long hours may actually be associated with increases in drug & alcohol use, aggression, school misconduct, precocious sexual activity, minor delinquency (occupational deviance)

Explain the idea of premature affluence. What are thought to be the effects of
premature affluence?

-2001, teenagers spent about $172 billion of their own money, and influenced billions in household spending
-High-school students who work 15 or more hours per week run the risk of attaining "premature affluence" - a state of having perhaps excessive amounts of money to spend on themselves that they will not be able to sustain later in their lives.
they believe making money is easy but when they become independent realize how hard

What do adolescent consumers spend their money on (girls and boys)?

leisure activities
-Girls: clothes, food, cosmetics
-Boys: food, clothes, big-ticket items

What are reasons that identity is an adolescent issue?

Physical changes of puberty and cognitive changes

What are the three ways in which identity or self development has been studied?

1. how individual's descriptions of the self or self-conceptions change

2. how positively or negatively one feels about the self

how does self-conception change from childhood to adolescence?

-Childhood development: very concrete → "I have red hair, I have a teddy named Ted"
-Adolescence: more complex, abstract self-conceptions develop (less concrete)

What is false self-behavior? In which situations are adolescents more likely to
show it? Think of examples from your own past.

-Acting in a way that one knows is inauthentic or fake. (more common within dating)
Pretending to be someone you are not
Least likely to occur around close friends
-Example: acting more cutesy for your boyfriend or girlfriend

What is self-esteem? Explain the difference between baseline self-esteem and
barometric self-esteem.

-Self-esteem
How an individual feels about him or herself
-Baseline self-esteem: self esteem is the same day to day (stable over time)
-Barometric self-esteem: feelings fluctuate day to day

What happens to barometric self-esteem during early adolescence?

-Increased volatility - Different trajectories for different adolescents
-Generally drop in baseline self-esteem in early & middle adolescence, leveling off in
late adolescence

Explain the notion of multidimensional self-esteem.

basic ones show up between ages 6-7

-Academic competence
(comes from their observations from parents, teachers, peers)
-Social competence - social relationships
- Social acceptance
-Athletic/physical competence
-Appearance: attractive they are compliments or lack thereof
-Romantic appeal
-Moral conduct: some people are trustworthy or liars or inbetween
-Job competence: How good are you at your job? How confident are you? our work ethic? Boss opinion on you

What are the main sex-differences in self-esteem? What are the causes thought to be?

-scholastic ability and social competence about equal
-guys more handsome and better at athletics than woman
-moral conduct rated higher for females than males
-Higher self-esteem for boys than girls, decreases over course of adolescence, more pronounced among white and puerto-rican teens, less pronounced among african american teens

Describe Erikson's theory, and the various 'crises' or 'concerns' and which are
the positive and negative versions of the outcomes; at which ages does he
suggest these occur?

-Trust vs. Mistrust: Born to 18 months
helpless, can only scream/cry
Does someone show up and make you feel better?
if not = mistrust, don't trust anyone, hard to have close relationships
if yes = grow up being trusting
-Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: 18 mo - 3 yrs
able to do things for yourself
learning how to control bathroom necessities and doing things by yourself
How does your environment react to doing things yourself?
don't/can't do it = shame/doubt
"we're in a hurry, I'll do it"
doing things by yourself, competence = autonomy
"choose between these two outfits"
Initiative vs. Guilt: 3 yrs - 6 yrs
get praised or made to feel guilty for wanting to explore, etc.
start projects and allowed to explore and do own things
don't get told no
startups are good - get praised for doing it
-Industry vs. Inferiority: age 6 to 12 yr old
what you learn about your learning abilities
how well you learn = feedback from teachers, looking at other kid's performance
try it this way vs WRONG/red marks
do you feel dumb = learned helplessness
*-Identity vs. Identity Diffusion: 12 yrs - 18 yrs
Who you are going to be, what kind of person you are going to become
if troubled or clueless = identity diffusion
-Intimacy vs. Isolation: late adolescence
forming relationships with significant others - romantic relationships
-Productivity vs. Stagnation: adult years
work, coach, volunteer work
Do you produce something that is useful?
-Ego integrity vs. Despair: late in life
Reflection
Am I happy? Was it good what I did?

Describe Erikson's crisis of identity versus identity diffusion.

-Crisis of Identity: Adolescents begin to experiment with different lifestyles, Identity
-Identity Diffusion: when a person is figuring out who they are

how is the social context in which identity formation takes place of importance?
What are consequences of this view (other cultures, other historical eras)

-Course of identity development varies by culture and historical era
E.g. more career options for women → more complicated choices
there is still cultures where women can't have a job or is limited
-The more alternatives available, the more difficult to establish a sense of identity → harder the choice becomes

Explain psychosocial moratorium

--Psychosocial Moratorium - adolescents are given a degree of freedom to explore their impulses, talents, interests, social roles and beliefs w/out fear that minor offenses against convention will bring drastic consequences
"Time out" from excessive responsibilities and obligations, experimentation (search period)
Luxury! = not everyone can do this because of responsibilities, money

Explain how James Marcia organised identity development.

-did not explore or made a commitment = identity diffusion
-people who are exploring, but can't commit = moratorium
-haven't explored but very committed = identity disclosure
-exploration and commitment is present (BEST) = identity achievement

How does identity develop over time? Which aspects are developed earlier and which later? What is the effect of college on identity development?

-Identity generally not established before age 18
-During college, vocational plans solidify
but not religious and political beliefs
-College may prolong psychosocial moratorium
especially for political and religious beliefs
-Individuals may move from one identity status to another, particularly during adolescent and young adult years

What are the different ways in which media are involved in identity?

Media establishes norms that people conform to, impacting their identity.
It also has an effect on their personalities.

What is the cultivation theory view of adolescents and the media? Recognize research that takes this approach.

Argues that watching television gradually shapes or "cultivates" a person's worldview, so that over time it comes to resemble the worldview most frequently depicted on TV

What is the displacement effect?

People stop talking and interacting to people

What is comorbidity?

Simultaneous presence of one or more additional conditions often co-occurring with a primary condition.

What is a common comorbidity for externalizing problems?

Substance use problems

What is negative affectivity? What is thought to be at the root of internalizing problems?

--How easily someone becomes distressed
--Negative affectivity is thought to be the underlying factor - vulnerability - temperament?

What is the difference between crime & delinquency

---Crime: an offense that may be prosecuted by the state and in punishable by law (usually adults)
---Delinquency: violation of law committed by juveniles

Explain what the age-crime curve is.

Crime rates are the greatest in adolescence, even excluding status offenses
Peak during HS then declines in young adulthood

Increase significantly between 10-17
After 17 stays high but drops due to some people being in jail because they would be over 18
25 it drops significantly
45 it is at its lowest

What is the most common internalizing disorder?

Depression

What are some criticisms of Super’s theory?

focuses primarily on the internal dimensions of self-concept, such as behavioural self and self-judging, while neglecting other dimensions like self-identity and personal self

How accessible is college in the US in comparison to other countries?

What are the problems for those adolescents who do not go to college after high school?

Rise in minimum-wage service jobs
Dropouts - go straight to minimum wage jobs
Critics: ease transition to adult world of work for non-college bound - one of the biggest problem in American education

What are critics suggesting needs to improve for the non-college-bound students?

two ways to help - Apprenticeships & Vocational schools
Advanced skilled job training
Join the army - do your service, pay off your schooling, can specialize
There needs to be more help finding good jobs that they can do and work their way up in/be successful and earn a living wage

Are there ethnic differences in unemployment?

higher unemployment by ethnicity
worse for blacks
white and latinos are about the same
asians fair better

What is the conclusion as to incidence of the
most positive mental states?

Adolescents' mind state more positive in structured leisure than in classes or with friends

What appears to be a big factor of the influence of work on school achievement?

less likely to get 7 hours of sleep, too exhausted to study

What are thought to be the explanations for middle class better achievement than lower class?

-begin school with academic disadvantage (low SES scoring lower on tests of basic skills)
- Genetic (lower IQ) and environmental (less cultural and social capital) disadvantages

How do parents sometimes stimulate extrinsic motivation?

offering rewards for improved performance or vowing punishment if behaviour doesn't change

What is growth mindset?

Mastery-Oriented (growth mindset)
Incremental view of ability (knowing that knowledge is improvable through efforts)
view that any skill, no matter what you can improve it by trying!
More common with physical skills

What types of jobs do American adolescents have?

Rural regions- agricultural jobs

suburbs and cities: retail, service, baby-sitting, yard work

What differences according to age and gender?

- Among younger teens- baby-sitting (girls) and yard work (boys)
– Among older teens–retail and service jobs (boys– manual labor; girls–service jobs

Why are psychologists who study work in High Schoolers critical of this employment?

Few permit independent behavior or decision-making
Little instruction from supervisors
Skills learned in school rarely used
Jobs often repetitive or boring, sometimes stressful, leading to injury and accidents

What does it mean that self-conception becomes better organized and integrated?

Adolescent start thinking more about who they are and can think more abstractly.

Self-conception: way individuals think about and characterise themselves

What appear to be antecedents for high self-esteem across all groups?

How is crisis of identity
resolved according to Erikson?

-Establishment of coherent sense of identity is the chief psychosocial crisis of adolescence
The adolescent's identity results from a mutual recognition between the young person and society

How does crisis of idenity make the social context in which identity formation takes place of importance

Identity development begins when individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and commit to options within the confines of their social contexts.

Explain identity diffusion

reluctance or refusal to consider identity issues
incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self
limbo = floating, drifting

explain identity foreclosure

adolescents commit to identities assigned to them by their parents and community while shutting off other possible paths of development
bypassing the period of exploration and experimentation

don't examine different types of careers/opinions = just says "I am going to be..."

explain negative identity

acting in ways that are guaranteed to arouse disapproval, but that also guarantee attention and concern
identities that are undesirable to parents or the community (environment)

if you choose an identity just to rub it in to parents face = driven by them in the wrong direction
EX: don't become a doctor like parents wanted
family/community not supportive - in this manner, it is not that bad like Erickson makes it out to be