Unit 0: AP Psychology, The Fundamentals of Psychological Research

psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

confirmation bias

people tend to look for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms what they already believe

hindsight bias

people believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if they didn’t actually predict it beforehand

overconfidence

when people have too much faith in their own judgements or abilities, thinking they know more than they do

empirical evidence

information that is obtained through observation, experimentation or measurement

scientific method

a systematic approach used to study human behavior and mental processes

hypothesis

specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study

falsifiable

a statement than can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation

peer review

a process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals

replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed

reliability

consistent results under similar conditions

validity

accurately measures what it intends to measure

The American Psychological Association (APA)

a leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

research design

the overall plan or strategy that outlines how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives

methodology

the systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design

likert scales

measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

quantitative data

number's-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments

qualitative data

data that gives deeper insights into complex topics

structured interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order

survey technique

research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures

wording effect

subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents’ interpretations and responses

social desirability bias

the tendency of individuals to respond in a matter that is viewed favorable by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers

naturalistic observation

research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation

case study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

correlational research

scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables

third variable problem

the possibility that a third , unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest

scatterplot

a visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

positive correlation

a correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a per

negative correlation

a correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship

experimental method

a research technique used to investigate cause and effect relationships between variables

independent variable

the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment

dependent variable

the variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment

confounding variables

a variable that wasn’t accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

operational definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study

experimental group

the participants in the group who are exposed to the independent variable

control group

the participants in the group who are not exposed to the independent variable

random assignment

research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly

placebo effect

the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment not due to anything else

experimenter bias

the researcher’s expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influences the results

single blind study

research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group but the researchers are aware

double blind study

research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group

placebo condition

administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

sample

refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

representative sample

a subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics characteristics and diversity of that population

random sample

ensures each participants in the study has an equal opportunity to be included which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias

sample bias

occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population leading to inaccurate or misleading results

generalizability

the extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population

statistics

a large amount of data can be collected in research studies

descriptive statistics

refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe characteristics of a dataset

inferential statistics

involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

measures of central tendency

statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data

mean

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the average value of a set of data

median

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the middle value of a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order

range

represents the different between the highest and lowest values in a dataset

standard deviation

a way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

normal or bell curve

the majority of the data falls near the center or mean of the distribution with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions

positive skew

the majority of the data clusters on the left with a tail going right

negative skew

the majority of the data clusters on the right with a tail going left

percentile rank

a statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

statistical significance

the likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

meta analysis

the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

comittees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

protect participants from harm

researchers must minimize risks and ensure well being or research participants throughout the study process

informed consent

the process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provide with comprehensive information about the study’s purpose procedures risks benefits and rights as participants

informed assent

involves providing these individuals with age appropriate or understandable information about the research study including its purpose procedures risks and benefits

confidentiality

requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with discretion and confidentiality

deception

involves misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study the procedures involves or the expected outcomes

confederates

individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study