Sociology Chapter 2: Studying Social Life: Sociological Research Methods

quantitative research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships

i.e. numerical statistics or percentages

qualitative research

research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, fieldnotes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world

scientific method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment

question

literature review

hypothesize and predict

experiment design

data collection

analyze

disseminate findings

What are the steps of the scientific method? (7)

literature review

a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic

hypothesis

a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena

variable

one of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove are related through research

operational definition

a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement

correlation

a relationship between variables in which they change together, and may or may not be causal

causation

a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other

intervening variable

a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

spurious correlation

the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

i.e. ice cream sales and violence are both influenced by a third variable: weather

paradigm shift

the term used to describe a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline

i.e. caused the world to shift from thinking the sun revolved around the Earth to the Earth revolved around the sun after mathematical information was introduced

ethnography

a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study

i.e. Edin and Kefalas studied why single women have children and don't get married

participant observation

a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting

i.e. Edin and Kafalas moved their family to a new location and became part of the community to make the women they were studying more comfortable with their presence

many women making under $16,000 a year find their children to be a stabilizing agent in their life; unlike the middle class who may see it as a distraction from their career goals

What did the study on single motherhood find?

rapport

a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy

i.e. the researchers for the single mother project were mothers themselves

access

the process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting

open about research, undercover about research

overt vs covert

fieldnotes

detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the ethnographic analysis

thick description

the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members

i.e. attention to details such as facial expressions and tone of voice enrich what might otherwise just be a list of events

reflexivity

how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting

grounded theory

an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

way of studying groups that are overlooked by other methods, challenge our taken-for-granted notions about groups we thought we knew, reshape stereotypes we hold about others and on which social policy is based, much pioneering methodological innovation comes from ethnography lately

advantages of ethnographies (4)

replicability

research that can be repeated, and thus verified, by other researchers later

lack of replicability, degree of representativeness (may not accurately portray the whole group), biased research process

disadvantages of ethnographies (3)

representativeness

the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

bias

an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis

interviews

face-to-face, information-seeking conversations, sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose

respondent

someone from whom a research solicits information

target population

the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize

sample

the part of the population that will actually be studied

informed consent

a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research

closed-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses

open-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses

leading questions

questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way

questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers

double-barreled questions

respondents can speak in their own words, help the researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have been otherwise overlooked

advantages of interviews (2)

respondents may not be truthful or forthcoming, lack of representativeness (small sample usually must be used with this method)

disadvantages of interviews (2)

action research

the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members; do their research with people and not on people and see it as "scholarship of engagement"

survey

a research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population

macro, quantitative

Survey research tends to be ____ and _____ in nature, looking at large-scale social patterns and employing statistics and other mathematical means of analysis

Likert scale

a way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

i.e. "strongly agree," "slightly agree," etc.

negative questions

survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do

representative sample

a sample taken so that findings from members of the sample group can be generalized to the whole population

probability sampling

any sampling scheme in which any given unit has the same probability of being chosen

simple random sampling

a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal change of being selected

weighting

techniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population

i.e. proportions of certain variables taken into consideration such as race, class, gender, or age

response rate

the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

convert it to a form of numbers that can be manipulated through computers (i.e. the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences can manipulate these quantitative variables)

What do researchers normally do with their data to try to analyze it?

gathers original data on a population that may be too large to otherwise study, quick and economical, reliable, less concern about interviewer or observer bias (respondents may feel more comfortable being honest)

advantages of surveys (4)

reliability

the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers

confidentiality

the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of the respondent

limits respondent expression, weak in validity due to dishonesty, sampling errors especially when respondents self-select, research used to support a point of view rather than pure scientific discovery

disadvantages of surveys (4)

validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring

i.e. if somebody is ashamed of their divorce, they may not answer with the correct reasoning for it

pilot study

a small study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one

existing sources

materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research

i.e. social demography uses statistical data to study human populations and some of that information is already collected through the government

comparative and historical methods

methods that use existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time period

i.e. using existing records to analyze the childhood of Hitler

content analysis

a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables-- such as words-- in a text, image, or media message

i.e. studying this shows that women are normally portrayed in a lesser status than men (i.e. housewives and mothers whereas men have bigger and better jobs while being fathers)

researchers are able to work with information they could not obtain for themselves and can pool data, can learn about many social worlds this way, same data can be used to replicate projects that have been conducted before to test for reliability

advantages of existing sources (3)

often seeking to answer questions original researchers may not have necessarily been searching to answer, can describe the messages inherent in media but not how such messages are interpreted

disadvantages of existing sources (2)

experiment

formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled

control

in an experiment, the process of regulating all factors except for the independent variable

experimental group

the part of a test group that receives the experimental treatment

control group

the part of a test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group

independent variable

factor that is predicted to cause change

dependent variable

factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable

social networks

What is an upcoming source of data?

quantitative

What type of data is most commonly used?

way to manipulate and control social environments they want to understand, can construct social situation and watch it unfold to support or reject a theory, can be repeated to test findings more than once

advantages of experiments (3)

we take a leap in claiming artificial design can imitate nature, generally not effective for describing more complex processes and interactions

disadvantages of experiments (2)

ethnographers can come in and analyze organizational sociology and help to determine who leads the group, etc. market research is also very popular to gauge your interests for the company's benefit (learning how to appeal to the seller-- consultants may be hired to analyze this)

What role does nonacademic research methods play in our society?

value-free sociology

an ideal coined by Weber whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere

basic research

the search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to affect change

applied research

research designed to gather knowledge that can be used to create some sort of change

"separate but equal"

What doctrine did the Supreme Court establish in 1896 to guarantee equal protection for African Americans while still allowing segregation?

Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

What event outlawed racial segregation in schools?

commercial ethnography

a type of research where people were hired to drive around with people and talk about luxury to gauge what they found important. Findings: Americans liked visible luxury while Japanese liked hidden charm, so Nissan made their Infiniti line according to this

objectivity

impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves

only European white men's opinions used to be credited and black, women, and minority opinions were not deemed important enough to be studied, something that we now can openly accept as distorted information

Why must we assume that some of what presently passes for face may some day be challenged?

reactivity

the tendency of people and events to react tot he process of being studied

Hawthorne effect

a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself

i.e. when an employer adjusted lighting and payroll, workers had increased efficiency and when the original conditions were returned, their efficiency maintained the increase

deception

the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project and its goals

it may be difficult to tell every individual they encounter, especially if they are doing "covert" research, that they are there for a study

How can an ethnographer be guilty of deception?

no-- they are just supposed to act in a way that won't harm the respondents

Are secrecy and deceit specifically prohibited in research?

confidentiality-- if their identity gets out or if they find out what was written about them specifically

What are some ways respondents can be emotionally harmed?

covertly joining groups for research (i.e. a street gang)

What are risks to the researchers?

code of ethics

ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project

institutional review board

a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects; can revoke funding

American Sociological Association Code of Ethics

sets out recommendations for how to avoid bias, adhere to professional standards, and protect respondents from harm

Nuremberg Code

set of moral and ethical guidelines for performing research on human beings that came out following Nazi war crimes by doctors on countless victims; says that scientists can only perform research that can "yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods"

protect human subjects from all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury and perform research only on subjects who give their informed, noncoerced consent

What are two more requirements of the Nuremberg Code?

Tuskegee Syphilis Study-40 year study of untreated syphilis in the male negro

What was the American atrocity that paralleled the Nuremberg Code?