Comprehensive Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology Key Concepts

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of the body and how these structures are designed for specific functions.

What is physiology?

The investigation of the processes or functions of the human body and how they are regulated to maintain health.

How do anatomy and physiology relate to each other?

Structure (anatomy) determines function (physiology), such as how the shape of a kidney's nephrons relates to their role in filtering blood.

What is the chemical level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

Atoms combine to form molecules, such as water, proteins, and lipids.

What is the cellular level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

Cells are the basic units of life, each with specialized structures and functions.

What is the tissue level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

Groups of similar cells form tissues, which include epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues.

What is the organ level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

Different tissues work together to form organs, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.

What is the organ system level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

Related organs form organ systems, such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

What is the organism level in the structural hierarchy of the human body?

The entire human body functioning as a unified whole.

What are the components of the integumentary system?

Skin, hair, and glands; it protects against injury, water loss, and pathogen entry.

What is the function of the skeletal system?

Supports and protects internal organs and produces blood cells.

What is the role of the muscular system?

Responsible for movement, posture, and heat generation.

What does the nervous system control?

Sensation, movement, and coordination.

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction through glands.

What does the cardiovascular system do?

Transports nutrients, oxygen, waste, and immune cells throughout the body.

What is the role of the lymphatic system?

Facilitates immune response and fat absorption.

What is the function of the respiratory system?

Facilitates oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal.

What does the digestive system do?

Performs mechanical and chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.

What is the role of the urinary system?

Removes waste and regulates pH and water balance.

What is the function of the reproductive system?

Produces sex cells and hormones.

What is homeostasis?

The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

What are the components of homeostatic control systems?

Set point, normal range, receptor, control center, effector, and response.

What is negative feedback?

A mechanism that resists or diminishes deviations from a set point, promoting stability.

What are examples of negative feedback mechanisms?

Regulation of body temperature and blood glucose levels.

What is the primary function of positive feedback in biological processes?

Positive feedback amplifies deviations, leading to a larger response, often resulting in a definitive outcome.

Provide an example of positive feedback in the human body.

During labor, oxytocin release causes contractions that intensify, leading to more oxytocin release until delivery occurs.

How does negative feedback differ from positive feedback?

Negative feedback opposes the stimulus, returning to the set point, while positive feedback enhances the stimulus, moving further from the set point.

What is the anatomical position?

A standardized stance where a person stands upright, heels together, arms at sides, palms facing forward, and thumbs pointing laterally.

What does the term 'superior' refer to in anatomical terminology?

Superior (cranial) refers to a position toward the head.

What does 'inferior' mean in anatomical terms?

Inferior (caudal) means toward the feet.

Define 'anterior' in the context of directional terms.

Anterior (ventral) refers to the front of the body.

What does 'posterior' indicate in anatomical terminology?

Posterior (dorsal) refers to the back of the body.

What does 'medial' mean in anatomical terms?

Medial means toward the midline of the body.

What is the meaning of 'lateral' in anatomical context?

Lateral refers to a position away from the midline.

Define 'superficial' in anatomical terms.

Superficial means near the surface.

What does 'deep' refer to in anatomy?

Deep means away from the surface, more internal.

What is meant by 'proximal' in anatomical terminology?

Proximal means closer to the origin of a limb.

What does 'distal' indicate in anatomical terms?

Distal means farther from the limb's origin.

What are the contents of the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) of the abdomen?

The RUQ contains the liver and gallbladder.

What organs are found in the Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)?

The LUQ contains the stomach and spleen.

What is located in the Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)?

The RLQ contains the appendix and cecum.

What does the Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) contain?

The LLQ contains the sigmoid colon.

What are the nine regions of the abdomen?

The nine regions include right/left hypochondriac, right/left lumbar, right/left inguinal, epigastric, umbilical, and hypogastric (pubic).

What is the function of the sagittal plane in anatomy?

The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right sections.

What does the frontal (coronal) plane do?

The frontal plane divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.

What is the horizontal (transverse) plane's role in anatomy?

The horizontal plane divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.

What are the main components of the dorsal cavity?

The dorsal cavity includes the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral (spinal) cavity (spinal cord).

What does the ventral cavity contain?

The ventral cavity contains the thoracic cavity (lungs, heart), abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, liver), and pelvic cavity (bladder, reproductive organs).

What are the two layers of serous membranes?

The visceral layer covers organs, while the parietal layer lines cavity walls.

What is the significance of the plasma membrane's fluid mosaic structure?

The plasma membrane is a fluid mosaic of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, and proteins, allowing for flexibility and functionality in cellular processes.

What role does cholesterol play in cell membranes?

Cholesterol modulates membrane fluidity, ensuring appropriate flexibility and stability.

What are the two main types of membrane proteins?

Transmembrane (integral) proteins and peripheral proteins.

What functions do transmembrane proteins serve?

They span the membrane and function as channels or transporters.

What are the functions of peripheral proteins?

They are attached to the membrane surface and act as enzymes or structural anchors.

What are the types of channel proteins?

Ligand-gated, voltage-gated, and mechanically-gated.

What is the function of enzymes in the membrane?

They catalyze reactions.

What role do markers play in cell membranes?

They serve as cell identity markers, including glycoproteins and CAMs.

How do receptors function in cell membranes?

They bind ligands such as hormones and neurotransmitters to initiate signaling pathways.

What is the primary function of microvilli?

To increase surface area for absorption.

What is the role of cilia in cells?

Motile projections that move mucus or fluids across cell surfaces.

What is the function of flagella?

Long, whip-like structures used for locomotion, such as in sperm.

What is diffusion?

Movement of molecules from high to low concentration due to random motion.

What is facilitated diffusion?

The process where larger or polar molecules pass through the membrane via carrier proteins.

What is osmosis?

The movement of water across membranes toward higher solute concentration.

What drives filtration in membrane transport?

Pressure gradients, such as blood pressure.

What is primary active transport?

Transport that uses ATP, such as the Na+/K+ pump.

What is secondary active transport?

Transport that uses electrochemical gradients, like the Na+ gradient driving glucose uptake.

What is vesicular transport?

Endocytosis and exocytosis for transporting large particles.

What factors affect diffusion?

Temperature, molecular weight, concentration gradient, surface area, and membrane permeability.

What is isotonic solution?

A solution with equal solute concentration, resulting in no net water movement.

What happens in a hypotonic solution?

Lower solute concentration outside the cell causes water to enter, risking lysis.

What occurs in a hypertonic solution?

Higher solute concentration outside the cell causes water to leave, leading to crenation.

What are the main stages of aerobic respiration?

Glycolysis, Acetyl CoA formation, Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.

What is the yield of ATP from anaerobic respiration?

Only 2 ATP per glucose.

What is metabolism?

The sum of anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking down) reactions.

What are the characteristics of enzymes?

They lower activation energy, are highly specific for substrates, are not consumed in reactions, and speed up vital reactions.

What are the main types of organic molecules?

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and ATP.

What are the components of carbohydrates?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

What are the functions of proteins?

They serve structural roles (like collagen) and regulatory functions (like hormones).

What are the main types of lipids?

Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids.

What are the components of nucleic acids?

Nucleotides, which include a sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate.

What is ATP and its role in the cell?

ATP is the energy currency of the cell, formed by phosphorylation of ADP, and energy is released by cleaving the terminal phosphate.

What is the arachidonic acid cascade?

A biochemical pathway that produces signaling molecules like prostaglandins and thromboxanes, regulating inflammation, pain, blood flow, and clotting.

How do NSAIDs affect the arachidonic acid cascade?

They target enzymes (COX) in the pathway to reduce inflammation or prevent clot formation.

What are the levels of structural hierarchy in the human body?

Chemical Level, Cellular Level, Tissue Level, Organ Level, Organ System Level, Organism Level.

What is the chemical level in the structural hierarchy?

Atoms combine to form molecules, such as water, proteins, and lipids.

What defines the cellular level in the human body?

Cells are the basic units of life, each with specialized structures and functions.

What is the tissue level?

Groups of similar cells form tissues, which include epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues.

What constitutes the organ level?

Different tissues work together to form organs, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.

What is the organ system level?

Related organs form organ systems, such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

What is the organism level?

The entire human body functioning as a unified whole.

What is the function of the integumentary system?

Protects against injury, water loss, and pathogen entry.

What does the skeletal system do?

Supports and protects internal organs and produces blood cells.

What is the primary role of the muscular system?

Responsible for movement, posture, and heat generation.

What does the cardiovascular system transport?

Nutrients, oxygen, waste, and immune cells.

What does the respiratory system do?

Facilitates oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal.

What is the function of the digestive system?

Mechanical and chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.

What does the urinary system regulate?

Waste removal, pH, and water balance.

What is the reproductive system responsible for?

Producing sex cells and hormones.

What is the primary function of negative feedback in the body?

To maintain homeostasis by reducing the effect of a stimulus.