[Anatomy 001] Lecture 4 Exam

which organs belong to the endocrine system

-pineal gland

-hypothalamus

-adrenal gland

-pituitary gland

-thyroid gland

-parathyroid gland

-thymus

-pancreas

-gonads(ovary & testis)

-heart

-kidney

-skin

-Digestive tract

be able to identify the major endocrine organs on a figure similar to Figure 17.1.

-pineal gland

-hypothalamus

-adrenal gland

-pituitary gland

-thyroid gland

-parathyroid gland

-thymus

-pancreas

-gonads(ovary & testis)

what type of molecule do these organs secrete

hormones

what are the 3 major stimuli that triggers hormone secretion and how do each stimuli work

1. Humoral

• Secretion in direct response to changing ion or nutrient levels in blood

• Parathyroid monitors calcium

2. Neural

• ex. Sympathetic nerve fibers stimulate cells in adrenal medulla

3. Hormonal

• Stimuli received from other glands

• Certain hormones signal secretion of other hormones

• Hypothalamus to the pituitary to other glands

what is the infundibulum;

A stalk that attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus.

What is the adenohypophysis?

the anterior part of the pituitary gland that is derived from the embryonic pharynx and is primarily glandular in nature

What is the neurohypophysis?

the posterior lobe of the hypophysis (pituitary gland), which stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin produced in the hypothalamus.

name the 7 hormones released by the anterior lobe of the pituitary

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Luteinising hormone (LH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Prolactin (PRL)

Growth hormone (GH)

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

where is the hypophyseal portal veins located

the anterior lobe

name the 2 hormones released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Oxytocin

which hormone is released by the parathyroid gland;

parathyroid hormone

name all the hormones released by the thyroid gland;

Thyroid hormone (T3 & T4) by follicular

cells, calcitonin by parafollicular cells

name 2 hormones released by the adrenal medulla;

epinephrine and norepinephrine

what are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex, in what order, & which hormone(s)is/are secreted by each layer;

1. zona glomerulosa: aldosterone

2. zona fasciculata: cortisol

3. zona reticularis: cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone

what are corticosteroids, name the 2 main classes of corticosteroids released by the adrenal cortex and what is an example hormone of each class;

mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

which hormone is released by the pineal gland;

melatonin

name the 2 main hormones released by the pancreas, which cells release each, & what is the general function for each;

alpha cells (A cells) secrete glucagon a protein hormone that signals liver cells to release glucose from their glycogen stores, thus raising blood sugar levels whenever they fall too low

beta cell (B cell) secrete insulin a protein hormone that signals most cells of the body to take up glucose from the blood and promotes the storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver, thus lowering excessive blood sugar levels

which hormone do the testes release;

testosterone

name 2 major hormones released by the ovaries;

estrogen and progesterone

which hormone is released by the heart;

atrial natriuretic peptide

name 2 hormones released by the kidney;

renin and erythropoietin (EPO)

name the hormone released by the skin.

Vitamin D

what is hematocrit;

measure of % RBC

what is the buffy coat;

portion of blood composed of

leukocytes & platelets

what is serum;

an amber-colored, protein-rich liquid that separates out when blood coagulates.

when you centrifuge a blood sample, what is the order in which they separate based on density;

plasma, buffy coat, erythrocytes

besides water, what kinds of molecules are found in blood;

Ions (such as Na+ & Cl-), Nutrients (Sugars, amino acids, lipids), Wastes (CO2, urea, ammonia) & Proteins

name the 3 main proteins in blood and their respective functions.

Albumin: prevents water from diffusing out of blood vessels

Globulins: antibodies & blood proteins that transport lipids, iron & copper

Fibrinogen: a molecule involved in chemical reactions for blood clotting

which formed element is most abundant

erythrocytes

what structures are missing in erythrocytes/red blood cells (RBC);

nucleus and organelles

what is the function of the RBC;

to transport oxygen to body cells and deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs.

what is the shape of RBC and how does that help the RBC in its function;

their biconcave shape provides 30% more surface area than that of spherical cells of the same volume, allowing rapid diffusion of oxygen into and out of erythrocytes

what molecule inthe RBC binds to oxygen.

hemoglobin

what is the general function of white blood cells (WBC);

outside the bloodstream in the loose connective tissue, where infection can occur

what are the 2 types (groups) of leukocytes

granulocytes and agranulocytes

what 3 WBC belong to the granulocytes;

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

what 2 WBC belong to the agranulocytes;

lymphocytes and monocytes

which WBC is most abundant;

neutrophils

what are the 2 main classes of lymphocytes;

T cells and B cells

what cell do B cells become;

plasma cells

what cell do monocytes become;

macrophages

what are platelets, what cell do they come from and what is their function.

a small colorless disk-shaped cell fragment without a nucleus, megakaryocytes, clotting

what is hematopoiesis;

the process by which blood cells form in red marrow

between yellow and red marrow, which one is capable of generating new blood cells;

red

where is red marrow found in the adult?

trabeculae of spongy bone of axial skeleton, girdles, & proximal epiphyses of humerus & femur

what does pulmonary vs. systemic circuit mean & which side of the heart does each circuit refer to;

p: right side, receives deoxygenated blood from body and sends to lungs

s: left side, received oxygenated blood from lungs and send to body

which 3 layers form the pericardium & which layer coincides with the epicardium;

Fibrous pericardium

Parietal pericardium

Visceral pericardium - epicardium

what are the 3 layers of the heart wall & what does each layer consist of;

epicardium- superficial, serous membrane, areolar CT

myocardium- middle, cardiac muscle tissue, circle/spiral patterns

endocardium- deep, simple squamous epithelium on CT, lines internal heart walls

name 3 blood vessels connecting to the right atrium

superior & inferior vena cava and coronary sinus

how many cusps does each of the 4 valves in the heart contain (mitral, tricuspid, aortic, & pulmonary);

tricuspid- three cusps

mitral - two cusps

aortic & pulmonary - three pocketlike cusps shaped roughly like crescent moon

what is a valve structurally composed of;

endocardium reinforced by cores of dense connective tissue

what is the function of the chordae tendineae +papillary muscle

papillary muscles contract, chordae tendineae tighten

Be able to sequence the pathway that oxygenated + deoxygenated blood must travel through the heart & great vessels with as much detail as discussed in class

superior and inferior vena cava -> R atrium -> tricuspid valve -> R ventricle -> pulmonary semilunar valve -> pulmonary trunk -> -> lungs -> -> pulmonary veins -> L atrium -> bicuspid valve -> L ventricle -> aortic semilunar valve -> aorta -> rest of body -> and back to the beginning

What is systole?

contraction of a heart chamber

What is diastole?

expansion of a heart chamber

what does the lub sound refer to;

the closing of the AV valves at the start of ventricular contraction

what does the dub sound refer to

the closing of the semilunar valve at the end of ventricular contraction

do atria or ventricles have thicker walls;

The ventricles of the heart have thicker muscular walls than the atria.

does the L or R ventricle have a thicker wall;

L ventricle 3x thicker than R ventricle because it pumps to the rest of the body

What are intercalated discs?

complex junctions

what are the 2 types of cell junctions that it contains & what are they used for.

fasciae adherens - anchors cardiac muscles together

gap junctions - synchronous beating

what is the purpose of the coronary arteries and where do they arise from;

supply the muscular walls and tissues outside of the heart and arise from the base of the aorta

what 2 branches emerge from the L coronary artery;

anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery

what is another name for the L anterior descending artery;

anterior interventricular artery

what 2 branches emerge from the R coronary artery;

-R marginal artery

-posterior interventricular artery

what is another name for the posterior descending artery;

posterior interventricular artery

what is the purpose of the coronary sinus.

occupies the posterior part of the coronary sulcus and return almost all venous blood from the heart to the right atrium

what is the conducting system & what is its purpose;

Series of specialized cardiac muscle cells; Sinoatrial (SA) node sets

inherent rate of contraction

be able sequence the pathway through the conducting system & be able to identify each component (AV node, AV bundle,internodal pathway, L & R bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, SA node) on a figure similar to Figure 19.14;

1. the sinoatrial node (pacemaker) generate impulses

2. the impulses at the atrioventricular node

3. the atrioventricular bundle connects the atria to the ventricles

4. the bundle branches conduct the impulse through the interventricular septum

the subendocardial conducting network stimulates the contractile cells of body ventricles

what nerve sends parasympathetic signals to the heart;

vagus nerve

what effect does parasympathetic vs. sympathetic innervation have on HR & if applicable, contraction;

parasympathetic decreases heat rate and smypathetic increase the heart rate

where in the brain is the cardiac center located.

hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray matter, amygdaloid, and inslar cortex

What do arteries do?

carry blood away from the heart

What do capillaries do?

one cell thick, and they are the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients from the bloodstream to other tissues in the body;

What do veins do?

carry blood to the heart

be able to sequence the flow of blood from the 5 general types of blood vessels;

veins, venules, capillaries, arterioles, and arteries

what are the 3 tunics of a blood vessel

(deep to superficial) tunica intima, tunica media, tunica externa

which tissue type is tunica intima

squamous epithelium

which tissue type is tunica media

smooth muscle

which tissue type is tunica externa

connective tissue

where is the endothelium found;

tunica intima

What is the lumen?

central blood-filled space of a blood vessel

what is the only tunic that capillaries have;

tunica intima

at the blood-brain barrier, do tight junctions &/or intercellular clefts exist;

The blood-brain barrier results from the selectivity of the tight junctions between endothelial cells in CNS vessels, which restricts the passage of solutes.

what are the 4 structural differences b/w arteries & veins.

1. Vein lumen larger

• 65% of blood in veins at any given time

2. Vein: Tunica externa > media

3. Less elastin in walls of veins

4. Walls of veins thinner than comparable arteries

be able to sequence how the following arteries connectin order to determine how blood reaches certain areas (you should also be able to recall what most of the names of the blood vessels mean): abdominal aorta, L&R anterior tibial a., aortic arch,ascending aorta,L&R axillary a., basilar a., L&R brachial a.,brachiocephalic trunk, celiac trunk, cerebral arterial circle (don't worry about the specific vessels),L&R common carotid a., L&R common iliac a., L&R dorsalis pedis a., L&R external carotid a., L&R external iliac a., L&R femoral a., L&R fibular a., gastric a., L&R gonadal a., hepatic a., inferior mesenteric a., L&R internal carotid a., L&R internal iliac a.,L&R popliteal a., L&R posterior tibial a., L&R radial a.,L&R renal a., splenic a., L&R subclavian a., superior mesenteric a., thoracic aorta,L&R ulnar a., L&R vertebral a. Note: a. = artery/arteries, L = left, R = right

aorta

• ascending aorta, aortic arch, descending aorta,

Aortic Arch

• brachiocephalic trunk

• left common carotid artery

- left external carotid artery

- left internal carotid artery

• left subclavian artery

Brachiocephalic trunk

• right common carotid artery

- right internal carotid artery

- right external carotid artery

• right subclavian artery

cerebral arterial Circle

• R Internal carotid a.

• Basilar a

•Vertebral a

R & L subclavian a.

• axillary a.

• brachial a.

• radial a.

• ulnar a.

Descending aorta

• thoracic aorta

• abdominal aorta

- Celiac trunk (3 branches)

- gastric a.

- (Common) hepatic a.

- Splenic a.

- Superior mesenteric a.

- Renal a. (both sides)

- Gonadal (testicular or ovarian) a. (both

sides)

- inferior mesenteric a.

- L & R common iliac a.

- L&R external iliac a.

- L&R internal iliac a.

- Femoral a.

-Popliteal a

-Anterior tibial a.

-Dorsalis pedis a.

-Posterior tibial a.

-Fibular a.

be able to sequence how the following connect: L atrium, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary veins, R ventricle.

R ventricle, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary vein, L atrium

what is the function of the superior vena cava

receives the systemic blood from all body regions superior to the diaphragm excluding the heart wall

what is the function of the inferior vena cava

ascends along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity and is the widest blood vessel in the body, return blood to the heart from all body regions inferior to the diaphragm

what is the purpose of the hepatic portal circulation;

unique to digestive: it picks up digested nutrients from the stomach and intestines and delivers these nutrients to the liver for processing and storage

be able to sequence how the following capillaries & veins connect in order to determine how blood leaves certain areas (you should also be able recall what most of the names of the blood vessels mean): L&R anterior tibial v., L&R axillary v., azygos v., L&R brachial v., L&R brachiocephalic v., L&R common iliac v., dural sinuses (don't worry about the specific vessels), L&R external iliac v.,L&Rexternal jugular v.,L&R femoral v.,L&R fibular v., first capillary bed (of hepatic portal system), L&R gastric v., L&R gonadal v., L&R great saphenous v., hepatic portal v., L&R hepatic v., inferior mesenteric v., inferior vena cava, L&R internal iliac v.,L&R internal jugular v., L&R popliteal v.,L&R posterior tibial v., L&R radial v., L&R renal v.,second capillary bed (of hepatic portal system), splenic v., L&R subclavian v., superior mesenteric v., superior vena cava, L&R ulnar v., L&R vertebral v.Note: v. = vein/veins, L = left, R = right

Right internal jugular v

External jugular v. (drains to #1)

Vertebral v. (drains to #2)

Internal jugular v. (becomes #2)

1. Subclavian v. (becomes #2)

2. brachiocephalic v. (becomes #3)

3. Superior vena cava

Azygos vein

Subclavian vein

Axillary vein

Brachial vein

Ulnar vein

Radial vein

Common iliac vein

External iliac vein

Internal iliac vein

Femoral vein

Great saphenous vein

Popliteal vein

Fibular vein

Anterior tibial vein

Posterior tibial vein

Hepatic veins

Inferior vena cava

Renal veins

R gonadal vein

L gonadal vein (goes to L renal v.)

L Common iliac vein

hepatic portal vein

Splenic vein

Superior mesenteric vein

Inferior mesenteric vein

Hepatic portal v.

L&R gastric v.

what is the function of lymphatic vessels;

collect this excess tissue fluid from the loose connective tissue around blood capillaries and return it to the bloodstream

what is lymph and in what direction does it flow;

fluid in the lymphatic vessel and it flows towards the heart

what is the specific order of the lymphatic vessels in which lymph flows;

lymphatic capillaries

collecting lymphatic vessels

lymph node

lymph trunks

lymph ducts

what are lacteals, where are they located, & what is the chyle that it receives;

one set of unique lymphatic capillaries and are located in the small intestine

chyle is a milkly white fatty lymph

what do lymph nodes do;

cleanse the lymph of pathogens, are bean-shaped organs situated along collecting lymphatic vessels

which 2 blood vessels does each lymph duct deliver lymph to.

jugular and subclavian vein

what are antigens;

any molecules inducing a response from a lymphocyte

what is apoptosis;

the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development.

what cell produces antibodies;

B cells