Unit 0/5A

Tragedy of the Commons

the tendency of individuals to overuse and deplete shared, public-access resources by acting in their own short-term self-interest rather than the common good

Clearcutting

a method of timber harvesting where all or most of the trees in a designated forest area are cut down at the same time

Selective cutting

a forestry practice that removes only single mature, diseased, or valuable trees, leaving the majority of the forest canopy and smaller trees intact

Strip cutting

a sustainable forestry harvesting method where narrow rows or strips of trees are clear-cut along the land's contour, leaving adjacent strips of intact forest to provide seeds, shelter, and wildlife corridors for natural regeneration

Soil erosion

the detachment and transport of topsoil by wind, water, ice, or gravity

Flooding

the overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry, triggered by heavy rain, melting snow, storm surges, or human changes to the land

Dikes

a long, raised wall or embankment built parallel to the sides of a river, lake, or ocean coast to prevent floodwaters from overflowing onto low-lying land

Embankments

a raised wall or artificial mound of earth, stone, or compacted soil built along waterways or across low ground to control water flow, prevent flooding, or support infrastructure

Levees

an enlarged earthen bank or wall built parallel to the side of a river or coastal area to prevent flooding and control water flow

Floodplains

a flat or nearly flat area of land adjacent to a river or stream that experiences periodic flooding when water overflows its banks

Increased soil and stream temperatures

the environmental consequence of removing tree canopy cover—primarily through clearcutting or deforestation—which exposes the ground and waterways to direct sunlight

Carbon dioxide storage

the long-term holding of carbon dioxide in natural or artificial reservoirs—known as carbon sinks—to prevent it from entering the atmosphere and contributing to global climate change

Pollutants

any chemical, physical, or biological substance introduced into the environment

Climate change

long-term shifts in Earth's average temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human activities that increase greenhouse gases

Shelterwood cutting

a forestry practice that removes mature trees in a series of partial cuts over a period of time, leaving enough older trees standing to shade and protect the new seedlings

Deforestation

the permanent removal or clearing of forest cover by humans to convert the land for non-forest uses such as agriculture, urban development, or mining

Old growth forests

an uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed by human activities or major natural disasters for 200 years or more

National forests

federally managed public lands classified as managed resource protection areas that allow for the sustainable use of resources like timber, grazing, and recreation

Sustainable logging

the practice of harvesting timber in a way that meets human needs for wood products without depleting the forest ecosystem, harming biodiversity, or compromising the forest's ability to regenerate for future generations

Decreased biomass (developing countries 1800s since)

in developing countries since the 1800s refers to the long-term reduction of organic matter—primarily trees and forests—driven by the ongoing harvesting of wood and land clearing for fuel and agriculture

Decreased biodiversity in clearcutting

the reduction of variety and abundance of species in an ecosystem caused by removing all trees from an area

Overfishing

the removal of fish and other aquatic organisms from a body of water at a rate faster than the population can reproduce and replace itself

Fishing techniques

the commercial and industrial methods used to harvest aquatic organisms from oceans, lakes, and rivers, which are studied heavily for their ecological impacts like bycatch and habitat destruction

Decreased biodiversity in overfishing

the reduction of the variety and abundance of marine or aquatic life caused by harvesting fish faster than they can reproduce

Longline fishing

a commercial fishing method that uses a single main mainline—often miles long—with thousands of baited hooks attached at regular intervals via short branch lines

Sustainable fishing techniques

methods of harvesting fish that maintain stable fish populations and protect marine ecosystems so that resources remain available for future generations

Bycatch

the unintentional capture of non-target species (such as dolphins, sea turtles, seabirds, or undersized fish) during commercial fishing operations

Drift net fishing

a commercial fishing method where long, vertical nets drift freely with the wind and ocean currents to entangle schooling pelagic fish

Bottom trawling

an industrial fishing method that drags heavy, weighted nets and metal plates across the ocean floor to catch bottom-dwelling species like groundfish, shrimp, and crabs

Trawl nets

large, cone-shaped commercial fishing nets dragged through the water column or along the ocean floor by one or more boats to capture targeted marine species

Dredging

an aggressive, destructive harvesting method where heavy metal frames and net bags are dragged across the ocean floor to scoop up bottom-dwelling marine organisms like scallops, clams, and oysters

Skimmer

the harvesting of fish faster than populations can naturally reproduce, leading to population depletion or fishery collapse

Sonar

the use of advanced sound navigation and ranging technology by commercial fleets to locate, track, and harvest fish schools with extreme efficiency, accelerating the depletion of fish stocks beyond their natural rate of replenishment

urban

the process where people move from rural areas to cities, changing natural land into built environments

Suburban/Suburb

a low-density residential area located on the outer edge or outskirts of a city

Rural

open, low-density land located outside of densely populated urban and suburban areas, where human activities focus primarily on agriculture, forestry, mining, or natural resource management

Urbanization

the process where a growing percentage of a population shifts from rural areas to live and work in cities, leading to the physical growth of urban and suburban areas

Urban sprawl

the uncontrolled, outward expansion of urban areas into low-density suburbs that convert surrounding rural, natural, or agricultural land

Suburban sprawl

the rapid, low-density expansion of urban areas outward into surrounding rural or undeveloped land, heavily relying on automobile transportation

Brownfield

an abandoned, idle, or underused industrial or commercial property where redevelopment or reuse is complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination

Heat islands

an urbanized area that experiences significantly higher temperatures than the surrounding rural areas due to human modifications of the landscape

Saltwater intrusion

the movement of saline ocean water into coastal freshwater aquifers, usually caused by excessive groundwater pumping or sea-level rise

Water quality

the chemical, physical, and biological condition of water that determines its ability to support ecosystems, drinking, or recreation

Water quality

Total dissolved solids

measure the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances dissolved in water

Water quality

Total suspended solids

the dry weight of suspended particles that are not dissolved in water, trapped by a filter

Water quality

pH

measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (\(H^{+}\)) in a water body on a 0–14 scale, indicating how acidic or basic it is, while urbanization drives human-induced shifts in landscape and atmospheric pollution that can disrupt these natural pH levels

Water quality

Hardness

measures the concentration of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions in water

Water quality

Turbidity

the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by individual suspended particles like sediment, clay, silt, and organic matter that scatter and absorb light

Water quality

Nitrates/Phosphates

water-soluble plant nutrients found in human runoff that trigger cultural eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems

Water quality

Temperature

degrades water quality by raising water temperatures through stormwater runoff over heated impervious surfaces and a lack of shading

Water quality

Macroinvertebrate diversity index

a scale that measures water health by counting the variety of small animals without backbones—like insects and snails—living in a stream or lake.

Carbon cycle

increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (\(CO_{2}\)) through the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation, and by generating methane and \(CO_{2}\) from decomposing organic waste in landfillsthe movement of carbon atoms between different sources and sinks (reservoirs) like the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks, and living organisms

Landfills

a designated disposal site for solid municipal waste generated by growing city populations

Solid waste, including plastic decomposition

discarded residential, commercial, and industrial refuse generated by high-density population centers, with plastic decomposition representing a critical challenge due to the persistence of synthetic polymers in landfills or the environment

Hazardous waste/Household hazardous waste

Types: Ex - batteries, bug spray, motor oil, paint

any discarded solid, liquid, or gas that threatens human health or the environment because of its chemical properties,

leftover or unused consumer products from residential areas that share these dangerous properties

CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act)

also known as the Superfund program, is a 1980 federal law that gives the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to clean up abandoned toxic waste sites and force responsible parties to pay for the damage

Environmental justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people—regardless of race, income, or background—in urban environmental decision-making, ensuring that low-income and minority neighborhoods do not bear a disproportionate share of urban environmental hazards

Superfund

an abandoned or heavily contaminated location designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for emergency cleanup of hazardous waste under the 1980 CERCLA law

Fossil fuels

how the high concentration of people and infrastructure in cities drives a massive demand for non-renewable energy sources (coal, oil, and natural gas), which in turn accelerates carbon emissions and disrupts local and global ecosystems

Carbon dioxide

the significant increase in atmospheric carbon released when natural landscapes are converted into developed, high-energy urban centers

Atmosphere

a major sink and recipient for air pollutants and greenhouse gases released by human activities

Impervious

a human-made structure—such as a road, sidewalk, parking lot, or roof—that does not allow water to soak into the soil

Flooding in urbanization

the overflow of water onto normally dry land caused by impervious surfaces—such as roads, rooftops, and parking lots—that block rainwater from soaking into the ground and overwhelm local storm drains

Population density

the number of individuals of a species—or specifically, human residents—living in a given unit of area, such as per square mile or square kilometer

Sanitary landfill

an engineered site designed to dispose of municipal solid waste while isolating it from the surrounding environment and groundwater

Incineration

the high-temperature combustion of waste materials to convert solid refuse into ash, flue gas, and heat

Leaching/leachate

the process where water moves downward through soil or waste, dissolving and carrying away soluble minerals, nutrients, or pollutants.

the resulting contaminated liquid that forms when water (such as rain) filters through solid waste—most commonly in urban municipal landfills—picking up heavy metals, chemicals, organic matter, and pathogens

Methane

the significant release of a potent greenhouse gas from densely populated human centers, primarily driven by municipal solid waste decomposing anaerobically in landfills and leaks from natural gas distribution infrastructure

Municipal solid waste (municipal waste)

everyday trash from homes and businesses, also called garbage or refuse.

Non-hazardous waste collected from urban areas, including food scraps, paper, plastics, and discarded goods.

Ecological footprint (resource demand and waste production)

the total amount of biologically productive land and water area needed to supply an individual, city, or country with the renewable resources they consume and to absorb their generated waste

Carbon footprint

the total amount of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide and methane, released directly or indirectly by an individual, organization, product, or country

Sustainability

the practice of using earth's natural resources to meet human needs today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs

Biological diversity

the variety of all life on Earth, measured across three main levels: genetic, species, and habitat (or ecosystem) diversity

Food production

the practice of growing, harvesting, and processing food to meet current human needs without degrading the natural resources, soil fertility, water supplies, or biodiversity required by future generations

Average global surface temperatures

a key environmental indicator used in AP Environmental Science (APES) to measure the health and sustainability of the planet's climate system

Carbon dioxide concentrations

a primary environmental indicator used to assess global climate stability and whether human resource use is sustainable

Human population

a core environmental indicator that tracks the total number of people living on Earth and measures our collective demand for natural resources

Resource depletion

the consumption of a natural resource at a rate faster than it can be replenished by natural processes

Sustainable yield

the maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested without reducing the available supply or damaging the future-generation population

Food security

the condition in which all people at all times have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life

Urban runoff

rainwater or snowmelt that flows over man-made, impermeable surfaces in cities instead of soaking into the soil

Increased water infiltration

the process of rainwater and surface water soaking down into the soil, which counteracts urban runoff by reducing surface water buildup and recharging groundwater supplies

Permeable pavement

an engineered paving material with porous structures or gaps that allow precipitation and stormwater to pass directly through to the underlying soil and gravel storage beds, reducing surface runoff

Planting trees

reduces surface water flow by intercepting rainfall with canopies and increasing soil infiltration through root systems

Increased public transportation

an effective strategy taught in AP Environmental Science (APES) to reduce urban runoff by decreasing the total area of impervious surfaces like roads and parking lots

Build up and not out

an urban planning strategy that focuses on vertical, high-density development rather than horizontal urban sprawl

Infiltration rate

the speed at which water from rain or melting snow soaks down into the soil

Mass transportation

reduce urban runoff by decreasing the total area of impervious surfaces like roads and parking lots

Seepage

the slow movement or escape of water through porous soil or small openings

Penetrate

the ability of water to soak or pass downward into the soil and underlying ground

Percolate

the downward movement of water through soil and porous rock layers under the force of gravity, occurring after infiltration to recharge groundwater

Aquaculture

the controlled farming of aquatic organisms like fish, shellfish, crustaceans, and aquatic plants in freshwater or marine environments

Contaminate

the introduction of harmful waste, chemicals, or genetic material from fish farms into surrounding natural aquatic ecosystems

Waste water

nutrient-rich, polluted water discharged from fish or shellfish farms that contains feces, uneaten feed, excess nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus), antibiotics, and hormones

Increased disease

the high rate of pathogen and parasite outbreaks caused by keeping high densities of fish or other aquatic organisms confined in small spaces

Salmon farming (hatcheries)

a form of aquaculture where salmon are artificially bred, hatched, and raised in controlled environments for commercial harvest or conservation stocking

Sustainable forestry

the practice of managing, harvesting, and using forest resources in a way that meets current human needs for timber and products without compromising the health, biodiversity, or regeneration capacity of the ecosystem for future generations

Reforestation

the process of replanting trees in areas where forests have been cleared, damaged, or depleted by logging, fires, or agriculture

Reusing wood

extends the life cycle of existing timber products to decrease the demand for newly logged trees and reduce deforestation

Ecologically sustainable forestry techniques

methods used to harvest timber and manage forest ecosystems without degrading their health, depleting resources, or harming future generations