Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Cognitive Psychology

study of higher mental processes

(memory, thinking, reasoning, knowing, decision making, problem-solving, judging, language)

Thinking

brain activity in which people mentally manipulate info including words, images, sounds, other data

Mental Images

representation in mind of an object or event

Concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, people

Prototypes

typical, representative examples of concepts

Algorithims

guarantees a solution to a problem

Heuristic

thinking strategy; may lead to a solution or error

availability heuristic

judges the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples

familiarity heuristic

chooses familiar items to be seen as superior to unfamiliar ones

Present Bias

tendency to more heavily weigh options that are closer to present

well-defined problem

nature of problem and info needed to solve it are available and clear

ill-defined problem

nature of problem and info needed to solve it is unclear

arrangement problems

require problem solver to rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy certain criterion

problems of inducing structure

must identify existing relationships among elements presented, then construct new relationship among them

transformation problems

consist of initial state, goal state, method for changing initial state into goal state

means-end analysis

consider ultimate goal + determines best strategy for attaining goal

insight

sudden awareness of relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another

functional fixedness

tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

mental set

tendency to solve problems in a certain way, based on past experience

confirmation bias

to seek out and weigh more heavily information that supports one’s initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory info

creativity

ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways

cognitive complexity

preference for elaborate, intricate, complex stimuli + thinking patterns

divergent thinking

generates multiple and novel responses to problems/question

convergent thinking

thinking in which a problem is viewed as having single answer

Language

the communication of info through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

grammar

system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed

phonology

study of smallest units of speech

(phonemes, morphemes)

phonemes

phonology: smallest units of speech

morphemes

phonology: smallest units that carry reasoning

syntax

ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences

semantics

aspect of language referring to meaning of words + sentences

prelinguistic stage

language development: 0-12 M

crying, cooing, babble

linguistic stage

language development: 1-2 Y

babble becomes similar to home language, one word, joint/short phrases

later linguistic stage

language development: 2-5 Y

short intelligent sentences, increased vocab + rules of grammar

(telegraphic speech and overgeneralization)

telegraphic speech

later linguistic stage: only essential words are used in sentences

overgeneralization

later linguistic stage: over apply a language rule, making speech errors

learning-theory approach

language acquisition follows principles of reinforcement + conditioning (nurture approach)

nativist approach

biologically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particulate ways (nature approach)

interactionist approach

determined by genetic + social factors, produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and the social world in which one is raised (nurture + nature approach)

linguistic - relativity hypothesis

language shapes and may determine the way people perceive + understand world

intelligence

capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

g factor

single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence

fluid intelligence

reflects ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve issues, find patterns

crystallized intelligence

accumulation of info, knowledge, skills that people have learned through experience + education

theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner: proposes there are 8 distinct spheres of intelligence

practical intelligence

Robert Stunberg: related to overall success in living

analytical intelligence

traditional problems, measured on IQ tests

creative intelligence

involves generation of novel ideas + products

emotional intelligence

set of skills that underlie accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, regulation of emotions

intelligence test

devised to quantify person’s level of intelligence

who developed the first real intelligence test?

Binet

Mental Age (MA)

age for which is given level of performance is average

Chronological Age (CA)

based on year of birth

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

takes into account MA and CA

(IQ Score = MA/CA x 100)

reliability

consistency of a test in measuring what it is trying to measure

validity

degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure

norms

standards of test performance that permit comparison of ones score on a test with scores of other individuals who have taken the same test

adaptive testing

not every test-taker receives identical sets of questions

— : items must be calibrated + created, every mistake can hurt score

+ : takes less time

intellectual disability

characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, covers many everyday social and practical skills

fetal alcohol syndrome

intellectual disability: occurs when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy

down syndrome

intellectual disability: a person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of 46 → typically a duplicate of chromosome 21

familial intellectual disability

intellectual disability: no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is a history of intellectual disability among family members

intellectually gifted

2-4% segment of population, IQ scores greater than 130