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Cognitive Psychology
study of higher mental processes
(memory, thinking, reasoning, knowing, decision making, problem-solving, judging, language)
Thinking
brain activity in which people mentally manipulate info including words, images, sounds, other data
Mental Images
representation in mind of an object or event
Concepts
mental groupings of similar objects, events, people
Prototypes
typical, representative examples of concepts
Algorithims
guarantees a solution to a problem
Heuristic
thinking strategy; may lead to a solution or error
availability heuristic
judges the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples
familiarity heuristic
chooses familiar items to be seen as superior to unfamiliar ones
Present Bias
tendency to more heavily weigh options that are closer to present
well-defined problem
nature of problem and info needed to solve it are available and clear
ill-defined problem
nature of problem and info needed to solve it is unclear
arrangement problems
require problem solver to rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy certain criterion
problems of inducing structure
must identify existing relationships among elements presented, then construct new relationship among them
transformation problems
consist of initial state, goal state, method for changing initial state into goal state
means-end analysis
consider ultimate goal + determines best strategy for attaining goal
insight
sudden awareness of relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another
functional fixedness
tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
mental set
tendency to solve problems in a certain way, based on past experience
confirmation bias
to seek out and weigh more heavily information that supports one’s initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory info
creativity
ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
cognitive complexity
preference for elaborate, intricate, complex stimuli + thinking patterns
divergent thinking
generates multiple and novel responses to problems/question
convergent thinking
thinking in which a problem is viewed as having single answer
Language
the communication of info through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
grammar
system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
phonology
study of smallest units of speech
(phonemes, morphemes)
phonemes
phonology: smallest units of speech
morphemes
phonology: smallest units that carry reasoning
syntax
ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences
semantics
aspect of language referring to meaning of words + sentences
prelinguistic stage
language development: 0-12 M
crying, cooing, babble
linguistic stage
language development: 1-2 Y
babble becomes similar to home language, one word, joint/short phrases
later linguistic stage
language development: 2-5 Y
short intelligent sentences, increased vocab + rules of grammar
(telegraphic speech and overgeneralization)
telegraphic speech
later linguistic stage: only essential words are used in sentences
overgeneralization
later linguistic stage: over apply a language rule, making speech errors
learning-theory approach
language acquisition follows principles of reinforcement + conditioning (nurture approach)
nativist approach
biologically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particulate ways (nature approach)
interactionist approach
determined by genetic + social factors, produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and the social world in which one is raised (nurture + nature approach)
linguistic - relativity hypothesis
language shapes and may determine the way people perceive + understand world
intelligence
capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
g factor
single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
fluid intelligence
reflects ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve issues, find patterns
crystallized intelligence
accumulation of info, knowledge, skills that people have learned through experience + education
theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner: proposes there are 8 distinct spheres of intelligence
practical intelligence
Robert Stunberg: related to overall success in living
analytical intelligence
traditional problems, measured on IQ tests
creative intelligence
involves generation of novel ideas + products
emotional intelligence
set of skills that underlie accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, regulation of emotions
intelligence test
devised to quantify person’s level of intelligence
who developed the first real intelligence test?
Binet
Mental Age (MA)
age for which is given level of performance is average
Chronological Age (CA)
based on year of birth
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
takes into account MA and CA
(IQ Score = MA/CA x 100)
reliability
consistency of a test in measuring what it is trying to measure
validity
degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure
norms
standards of test performance that permit comparison of ones score on a test with scores of other individuals who have taken the same test
adaptive testing
not every test-taker receives identical sets of questions
— : items must be calibrated + created, every mistake can hurt score
+ : takes less time
intellectual disability
characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, covers many everyday social and practical skills
fetal alcohol syndrome
intellectual disability: occurs when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy
down syndrome
intellectual disability: a person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of 46 → typically a duplicate of chromosome 21
familial intellectual disability
intellectual disability: no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is a history of intellectual disability among family members
intellectually gifted
2-4% segment of population, IQ scores greater than 130
