APWH 1750-1900 Review Terms

its 2am this isn't okay

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 18th century emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, which influenced political thought and democratic ideals.

divine right

The political doctrine that monarchs derive their right to rule directly from the will of God, and not from any secular authority or the consent of the governed.

Mandate of Heaven

a Chinese philosophical concept that legitimizes a ruler's authority as granted by divine will, emphasizing moral governance.

Thomas Hobbes

An English philosopher known for his political ideas on social contract theory and absolute sovereignty, most famously expressed in his work "Leviathan." Hobbes argued that a strong central authority is necessary to prevent chaos and maintain order in society.

John Locke

An influential English philosopher known for his ideas on natural rights, government by consent, and the social contract, particularly outlined in his works "Two Treatises of Government." Locke believed in the right to life, liberty, and property and argued that government should protect these rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A French philosopher and writer who is best known for his ideas on the social contract and popular sovereignty, outlined in his work "The Social Contract." Rousseau emphasized the importance of the general will and believed that legitimate political authority comes from the collective will of the people.

Voltaire

A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, freedom of speech, and separation of church and state. Voltaire used satire and wit to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and political oppression in his works.

Montesquieu

An influential French political philosopher known for his theory of the separation of powers, outlined in his work "The Spirit of the Laws." Montesquieu argued that political liberty is best safeguarded by dividing government into distinct branches.

enlightened monarchs

A form of absolute monarchy in which rulers are influenced by the Enlightenment and implement reforms aimed at promoting knowledge, education, and improvements in society while maintaining their power.

Neoclassical Period

A cultural movement from the late 18th to early 19th centuries characterized by a revival of classical styles in art, architecture, and literature, emphasizing simplicity, symmetry, and the ideals of ancient Greece and Rome.

French and Indian War

A conflict between Britain and France in North America (1754-1763) that was part of the larger Seven Years' War, leading to British dominance in North America and major debts that influenced colonial grievances before the American Revolution.

Seven Years’ War

A global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763 involving many of the world's great powers, primarily stemming from colonial rivalries between Britain and France. It resulted in significant territorial gains for Britain in North America and marked a turning point in the balance of power in Europe, setting the stage for future conflicts.

George Grenville

British Prime Minister who served from 1763 to 1765, known for his rôle in imposing taxes on the American colonies, such as the Stamp Act, which fueled colonial discontent leading up to the American Revolution.

Charles Townshend

a British politician known for his role in taxing the American colonies, notably the Townshend Acts, which led to increased tensions and protests among colonists.

Revenue Act

A law passed in 1764 aimed at raising revenue from the American colonies by imposing duties on imported goods, thereby intensifying colonial resistance and contributing to the American Revolution.

Stamp Act

A 1765 law imposed by Britain requiring colonists to pay a tax on printed materials, sparking widespread protest and contributing to the push for American independence.

Tea Act

A 1773 law that granted the British East India Company the right to sell tea directly to the colonies, undermining colonial tea merchants and leading to the Boston Tea Party.

Thomas Paine

An influential writer and political activist, Thomas Paine is best known for his pamphlet "Common Sense," which argued for American independence from Britain and helped galvanize public opinion in favor of the Revolutionary War.

Declaration of Independence

A document adopted on July 4, 1776, declaring the thirteen American colonies free from British rule, articulating the principles of individual liberty and government by consent.

Estates-General

The legislative assembly in France, consisting of representatives from the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. It was convened in 1789, marking the start of the French Revolution.

National Assembly

The revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate of France in 1789, it marked a pivotal moment in the French Revolution, as it sought to challenge the existing political order. The assembly ultimately led to the end of absolute monarchy in France and the establishment of a constitutional government.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A fundamental document of the French Revolution adopted in 1789, outlining the individual and collective rights of citizens, emphasizing liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

Convention

The governing body that led France during the most radical phase of the French Revolution from 1792 to 1795. It was responsible for the establishment of the Republic and the trial of King Louis XVI. The Convention, also known as the National Convention, was crucial in implementing radical changes, including the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of universal male suffrage.

Jacobins

A radical political group during the French Revolution known for advocating for the rights of the lower classes and supporting revolutionary ideas. The Jacobins gained significant power during the Reign of Terror and played a key role in the establishment of the Republic.

Committee of Public Safety

The executive government in France during the Reign of Terror, formed in 1793 to protect the revolution from internal and external enemies. Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, it played a central role in the political repression and executions of perceived threats. It was responsible for overseeing the Revolutionary Tribunal and implementing policies that led to the mass execution of those considered enemies of the Republic.

Maximilien Robespierre

A key figure in the French Revolution known for his influential role in the Committee of Public Safety and leadership during the Reign of Terror, advocating for revolutionary ideals and social reform. He was instrumental in implementing radical policies, including widespread purges and the execution of perceived enemies of the revolution.

Directory

The government of France that replaced the Committee of Public Safety in 1795, characterized by a five-member board that governed until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. It was marked by political instability and corruption, and struggled to deal with economic challenges and ongoing conflicts.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of the French and establishing a vast empire across Europe. Known for implementing reforms, such as the Napoleonic Code, and for his military strategies, he significantly shaped modern European history.

Napoleonic Codes

A set of civil laws established by Napoleon Bonaparte that standardized legal systems across France and influenced legal codes in many other countries, emphasizing clarity, equality, and individual rights.

Prince von Metternich

Austrian diplomat and statesman known for his role in the Congress of Vienna and his conservative policies aimed at preserving the balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. He sought to suppress revolutionary movements and promote monarchy as a means to maintain stability.

Alexander I of Russia

Russian Tsar who ruled during the Napoleonic Wars, known for his role in the coalition against Napoleon and his influence in the Congress of Vienna. He implemented reforms, facing opposition from conservative elements and ultimately played a key role in shaping 19th-century European politics.

Duke of Wellington

British military leader who played a key role in defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and served as Prime Minister, known for his diplomatic and military leadership.

Waterloo

Site of the decisive battle in 1815 where the combined forces of the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon, marking the end of his rule and influencing the future of European politics.

Congress of Vienna

A conference held in 1814-1815 among the major powers of Europe to redraw territorial boundaries and establish a balance of power after the defeat of Napoleon, aiming to prevent future conflicts.

balance of power

A political doctrine aimed at preventing any one nation from becoming too powerful, thereby ensuring stability and peace in international relations.

Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution who fought for independence from France and helped establish the first black-led republic.

Jacques Dessalines

A leader of the Haitian Revolution who succeeded Toussaint L'Ouverture and declared Haiti's independence from France, becoming its first ruler.

Simon Bolivar

A Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in Latin America's successful struggle for independence from Spanish rule, leading several countries to freedom.

Jose de San Martin

An Argentine general and key leader in the South American wars of independence, known for liberating Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish rule.

John VI

King of Portugal who fled to Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars and later helped establish the independence of Brazil.

Pedro II

The second and last Emperor of Brazil, who reigned from 1831 to 1889, known for his progressive reforms and efforts to modernize Brazil.

Miguel Hidalgo

A Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary leader who is considered the father of Mexican independence. He issued the "Grito de Dolores," calling for the end of Spanish rule in Mexico.

Jose Morelos

A leading figure in the Mexican War of Independence, succeeding Miguel Hidalgo and continuing the fight for independence with a focus on social reforms. He organized the insurgent forces and advocated for the abolition of slavery and the redistribution of land.

Treaty of Cordoba

The treaty signed in 1821 that recognized Mexico's independence from Spain and established the framework for a constitutional monarchy.

neocolonialism

A term that describes the practice of using economic, political, and cultural pressures to control or influence a country, particularly in the context of former colonies after achieving independence.

Mexican Revolution

A major armed struggle from 1910 to 1920 that sought to address inequalities in land, wealth, and power in Mexico, leading to significant social and political changes.

Porfirio Diaz

A Mexican general and politician who served as President of Mexico for several periods, known for his authoritarian rule and modernization policies before the Mexican Revolution.

Tupac Amaru II

An indigenous leader who led a rebellion against Spanish colonial rule in Peru from 1780 to 1781, seeking to reform colonial policies and improve conditions for indigenous peoples. His uprising aimed to address exploitation and land reform.

Samory Toure

A West African military leader who founded the Wassoulou Empire and resisted French colonial expansion in the late 19th century, known for his guerrilla warfare tactics. He fought against the French during multiple conflicts, establishing a legacy as a key figure in the resistance against colonial rule.

Ghost Dance

A spiritual movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, emphasizing a return to traditional ways and a vision of resurrecting the dead and restoring their lands following colonial injustices.

Mahadist

A Sudanese religious and military leader who led a successful uprising against Egyptian and British colonial forces in the late 19th century, establishing a theocratic state in Sudan. He was a key figure in the Mahdist War, promoting Islamic reforms and resisting foreign domination.

enclosure

A movement in 18th and 19th century England that involved the legal process of consolidating small landholdings into larger farms, which often displaced peasant farmers and transformed agricultural practices.

urbanization

The process of increasing population and development in cities, resulting from industrialization and migration from rural areas during the 18th and 19th centuries.

domestic system

An early form of industrial production in which goods were produced in homes rather than in factories. This system often involved families working together to manufacture products, gradually being replaced by the factory system during the Industrial Revolution.

flying shuttle

A key invention by John Kay in 1733 that revolutionized weaving by allowing a single weaver to operate a loom more efficiently, significantly increasing textile production and contributing to the Industrial Revolution.

spinning jenny

A multi-spindle spinning frame invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, which allowed a worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously, significantly increasing yarn production.

Eli Whitney

inventor known for the cotton gin and interchangeable parts, which transformed manufacturing processes.

cotton gin

A machine invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 that efficiently separates cotton fibers from seeds, greatly increasing cotton production and impacting the economy of the Southern United States.

steam engine

A heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid, pivotal during the Industrial Revolution for powering machinery and transportation.

James Watt

a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer who improved the steam engine in the late 18th century, significantly enhancing its efficiency and paving the way for the Industrial Revolution.

Robert Fultron

an inventor and engineer known for developing the first commercially successful steamboat in the early 19th century, revolutionizing transportation and trade along America's rivers.

steamship

A ship powered by steam engines, which revolutionized maritime travel and commerce in the 19th century, allowing for faster and more reliable transportation across oceans.

George Stephenson

an English civil and mechanical engineer, known as the "Father of Railways" for his contribution to the development of the locomotive steam engine and the establishment of the first public railway.

steam-powered locomotive

A train that uses steam engines for propulsion, significantly increasing the efficiency and speed of land transportation during the Industrial Revolution.

telegraph

a system for transmitting messages over long distances using coded signals, typically via wire, significantly improving communication in the 19th century.

telephone

a device that converts sound into electrical signals for communication over distances, invented by Alexander Graham Bell.

lightbulb

An electric device that produces light when an electric current passes through it, revolutionizing indoor lighting and contributing to the growth of industries and urbanization during the late 19th century. It was invented by Thomas Edison and drastically changed social habits.

internal combustion engine

a heat engine that converts fuel into mechanical energy through the combustion of fuel within the engine itself. It played a pivotal role in the development of automobiles and machinery in the late 19th century.

radio

a device that uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive sound, revolutionizing communication and entertainment in the early 20th century.

Charles Darwin

A naturalist who developed the theory of evolution through natural selection, profoundly impacting biology and society in the 19th century.

interchangeable parts

manufactured components that are almost identical and can be easily substituted for one another in machinery, leading to increased efficiency in production and repair.

assembly line

a manufacturing process where products are assembled in a sequential manner, significantly boosting production efficiency and reducing costs.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist and philosopher, known as the father of modern economics. He wrote "The Wealth of Nations," advocating for free markets and the division of labor.

free-market system

an economic system based on supply and demand with minimal government intervention, promoting competition and individual entrepreneurship.

capitalism

an economic system characterized by private ownership of production and the creation of goods or services for profit, driven by competition and market forces.

laissez-faire capitalism

a type of capitalism that emphasizes minimal government involvement in economic affairs, allowing for free market competition.

Karl Marx

a political economist and philosopher known for his critiques of capitalism and his theories on socialism and communism.

socialism

an economic and political system where the means of production are owned or regulated by the community as a whole, aiming to achieve greater social equality.

communism

a political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Luddites

a social movement of English workers in the early 19th century who protested against industrialization and mechanization by destroying machinery.

Factory Act of 1883

a law passed in Britain to improve working conditions in factories, particularly for women and children, by limiting work hours and setting safety regulations.

labor unions

organizations formed by workers to protect their rights and interests, typically advocating for better wages, working conditions, and hours.

social mobility

the ability for individuals or groups to move up or down the social ladder, often influenced by education, income, and employment opportunities.

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Sardinia who played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy during the 19th century and became the first king of a unified Italy. He was instrumental in the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification, and worked with figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Count Camillo Cavour

A leading figure in the Italian unification movement, serving as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He was instrumental in diplomatic efforts and military strategies that led to the unification of Italy. Cavour worked closely with Victor Emmanuel II to achieve these goals.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

An Italian general and nationalist, Garibaldi was a key figure in the unification of Italy, known for his role in leading the Expedition of the Thousand and contributing to the formation of the Italian state. He was also a prominent military leader who championed democratic ideals and played a significant role in the liberation of southern Italy.

William I

German Emperor and King of Prussia who played a key role in the unification of Germany, overseeing its establishment as a nation-state. He was crowned as the first German Emperor in 1871 after the successful wars against Austria and France.

Otto von Bismarck

A German statesman who played a crucial role in unifying Germany through realpolitik, diplomacy, and warfare, and served as the first Chancellor of Germany. He is known for orchestrating key wars, such as the Franco-Prussian War, which ultimately solidified German unity.

Franco-Prussian War

A conflict between France and Prussia from 1870 to 1871, which resulted in the unification of Germany and the proclamation of the German Empire. The war was marked by Prussia's military superiority and the strategic alliances it formed, leading to a decisive victory over France.

William II

German Emperor and King of Prussia, successor to William I, known for his aggressive foreign policy and leading Germany into World War I.

Propaganda Movement

A late 19th-century reform movement in the Philippines that sought to gain autonomy from Spanish colonial rule through education, literature, and advocacy for civil rights. Prominent figures included José Rizal and Andres Bonifacio, who aimed to promote Filipino nationalism and social reforms.

Lola Rodriguez de Tio

A literary and political movement in the late 19th century that sought to promote the independence of Cuba from Spain through poetry, journalism, and other forms of media.

Alexander II

The Emperor of Russia from 1855 to 1881, known for implementing significant reforms including the emancipation of the serfs and promoting modernization and industrialization. He also initiated military and educational reforms, aimed at modernizing Russia and reducing social unrest.

Emancipation Edict

A decree issued by Alexander II in 1861 that freed the serfs in Russia, granting them personal liberties and the rights to own property.

The People’s Will

A revolutionary organization in Russia during the late 19th century that sought to assassinate government officials, including Tsar Alexander II, as part of its campaign for social and political reform.

Russification

The policy of enforcing Russian culture and language on the diverse ethnic groups within the Russian Empire, aimed at consolidating national unity and loyalty to the Tsar.

transnational bussinesses

Large corporations that operate across national borders, impacting global economics and trade. These businesses often seek to minimize costs by utilizing resources and labor from multiple countries.

social Darwinists

A group of thinkers in the late 19th century who applied the concept of natural selection to human society, justifying imperialism and social inequality as part of the "survival of the fittest." They believed that certain races and social classes were inherently superior to others, which rationalized discriminatory policies.

Rudyard Kipling

A British author and poet known for his works about British colonialism, including the famous poem 'The White Man's Burden,' which encouraged imperialist attitudes and perceptions of cultural superiority.

“White Man’s Burden”

A poem by Rudyard Kipling that expresses the idea that it is the obligation of Western powers to civilize non-Western societies, reflecting imperialist attitudes.