PEE

Sun bleached flies sitting in the windowsill Waiting for the day they escape They talk all about that money and how their babies are always changing While they're breathing in the poison of the paint What I wouldn't give to be in Church this Sunday Listening to the choir, so heartfelt, all singing God loves you, but not enough to save you So, baby girl, good luck taking care of yourself So I said fine, 'cause that's how my daddy raised me If they strike once then you just hit 'em twice as hard But in the end, if I bend under the weight that they gave me Then this heart would break and fall as twice as far We all know how it goes The more it hurts, the less it shows But I still feel like they all know, and that's why I can never go back home And I spend my life watching it go by from the sidelines And God, I've tried, but I think it's about time I put up a fight But I don't mind 'cause that's how my daddy raised me (how my daddy raised me) If they strike once then you just hit 'em twice as hard But I always knew that in the end no one was coming to save me So I just prayed and I keep praying and praying and praying If it's meant to be then it will be So I met him there and told him I believe Singing if it's meant to be then it'll be I forgive it all as it comes back to me (back to me) If it's meant to be then it will be So I met him there and told him I believe (I believe, yeah) Singing if it's meant to be then it will be (oh, oh) I forgive it all as it comes back to me (it comes back to me) If it's meant to be then it'll be (it'll be, it'll be, it'll be) So I met him there and told him I believe (yeah) Singing if it's meant to be then it will be I forgive it all as it comes back to me (oh) I'm still praying for that house in Nebraska By the highway, out on the edge of town Dancing with the windows open I can't let go when something's broken It's all I know and it's all I want now

Design Process Flowchart

1. Define Problem

2. Generate Concepts

3. Develop a Solution

4. Construct and Test Prototype

5. Evaluate Solution

6. Present Solution

Vector

quantities that have both magnitude and direction

• Magnitude: length of vector

• Direction: angle between vector and reference axis

• Sense: way the arrow is facing (ex. Upwards to the right, downwards to the left)

• Ex: velocity, force, acceleration

Position

• vector value

• place where something is located

displacement

distance from starting point (final position - starting position)

velocity

speed and direction an object is moving; v = d/t

contact forces

forces that require physical contact

• Applied: push or pull

• Friction: resisting motion 

• Air Resistance: friction force due to air molecules 

• Tension: forces in ropes, cables, chains, strings, etc. 

• Spring: F=kx, force in spring 

• Normal: contact force that is perpendicular to the surface that an object contacts  

action-at-a-distance forces

Forces that can still exert push and pull while not being in physical contact

• Gravitational Force: force due to object’s mass 

• Electrical Force: attractive or repulsive force between electrically charged objects

• Magnetic Force: force due to motion of electrically charged particles

• Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces: force within atoms 

  1. Strong: neutrons and protons 

  2. Weak: electrons and antineutrinos

Scalar

quantities that only have magnitude

• Ex: volume, density, speed, energy, time, temperature

Mechanical Advantage

• output/input

• 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 1714 gpm-psi

Inexhuastible Resource

resource that are unlikely or impossible to deplete

Nonrenewable resources

resources with a finite supply that cannot be easily replenished

Renewable Resource

resources that can replenish themselves over time

Wind energy

• Inexhaustible

  • unlimited supply of kinetic energy from wind (air travels from areas of high to low pressure)

• Created using turbines

  • The wind blows past turbines → blades on turbine spin → kinetic energy is transferred to mechanical energy → rotation spins generator  → generator produces electricity

• Infrastructure

  • Challenges 

    • Takes up a lot of space

    • Noisy 

    • Difficult to transport wind turbines 

      • Cannot take certain roads and make certain turns 

  • Equipment 

    • Towers, blades, hub components, nacelle assemblies

      • nacelle assemblies: generator, gearbox

    • nacelle assemblies are domestically obtained

    • Internal components are imported

• Emerging Technologies

  • flexible blades

  • self-adjusting blades

  • 3D modeling

Tidal Energy

• Inexhaustible

• Energy harnessed from the natural rise and fall of ocean tides 

  • Moon’s gravity causes tides 

• Process to make it usable 

  • Tidal streams 

    • Turbines are placed in tidal streams (created by tides)

    • Convert kinetic energy of moving water into electricity 

    • Most effective in shallow waters

    • Turbines move slowly to not disturb marine life 

  • Tidal barrages

    • Large dams built across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries  

    • Tide rises → gates open 

    • High tide → gates close 

    • Water levels between high tide and low tide drive turbines 

    • Water released through turbines at controlled rate 

  • Tidal lagoons

    • Large, enclosed body of water 

    • Turbines capture energy from the rise and fall of water levels 

      • Generate energy as lagoon is emptied or filled 

    • Minimal environmental impacts 

    • Less common since it does not generate a lot of power 

• Infrastructure 

  • Hydroelectric dam 

    • Ideally located on river with steep drop

      • Steeper drop = more energy produced

    • Energy from water is created by gravity moving water down a hill

    • Flow of water controlled by dams and tunnels

    • Water behind dam flows through an intake  → pushes against turbine blades → water’s kinetic energy converted to mechanical energy → drivers generator → produces electricity → electric energy transmitted to electrical power grid 

  • Bulb turbines 

    • Turbine on horizontal axis, parallel to flow of water

• Emerging technologies

  • Environmental protection

    • Make hydropower turbines more fish-friendly 

      • Replace larger blades with more smaller blades

      • Decrease turbine speed 

  • Efficiency

    • water can be run through multiple rounds of smaller turbines

  • Biodiversity 

    • replacing the sharp edges of the turbine for extremely rounded edges

Solar Energy

• Inexhaustible

• Source of most energy 

• Process 

  • Light and heat from the Sun is harnessed 

  • Sunlight → electricity using photovoltaic cells 

    • Sun gives off PV cells → light strikes semi-conductive material → material absorbs photons and releases electrons (photovoltaic effect) → electrons react → creates small voltage → electrons pushed to conductive metal → becomes current → direct current to alternating current

• Infrastructure

  • Solar panel

    • Semi-conductive material

    • Gets energy from the Sun 

    • Energy from Sun is transferred to conductive metal

  • Controller

    • Regulates electrical flow by controlling voltage and amps

    • Sends electricity to solar battery 

  • Battery bank

    • Uses stored energy 

    • Activates when little solar energy is available (cloudy day, at night, etc.)

  • Inverter

    • Converts direct current to alternating current 

    • Allows current to be more efficient and usable for home appliances

  • Meter 

    • Determines the kilowatts per hrs of solar powers

• Emerging technologies

  • Perovskites

    • Unstable, degrades quickly in wet environments

    • Reacts to different solar colors 

    • Can deliver more power when combined with other material

    • High efficiency 

  • Quantum dots

    • Toxic, degrades in UV and water

    • Can be used to make artificial atoms 

    • Energy levels are controlled

    • Size of atom represents colors on solar spectrum absorbed 

  • Night solar

    • Generates little energy 

    • Solar panels for night 

    • Uses a diode from night vision goggles 

    • Inverse of solar cells 

    • No need for collar battery

Nuclear Fusion

• Inexhaustible

• still in development

• Energy from light atoms 

  • Hydrogen - deuterium and tritium 

  • Natural tritium is rare and on high demand = expensive 

  • Tritium needs to be artificially produced 

    • Waste production 

  • Needs high temperatures and pressures 

• Process

  • Thermonuclear - nuclear reactions occur at high temperatures 

  • Electrons stripped from atoms → electrons separated from nuclei → nuclei repel each other and mov incredibly fast → temperature rises → two light nuclei fuse together → heavy nuclei → energy

• Infrastructure

  • Magnetic confinement (tokamak)

    • Plasma in donut-shaped chamber is squeezed using magnetic field 

    • Plasma movement confined

    • Generates stable continuous plasma → nuclear fusion occurs

  • Inertial confinement 

    • Uses pulses from powerful lasers to heat surface of fuel pellet 

    • Pellet fuses when hot and dense 

    • Nuclear fusion occurs → pulses of energy 

• Emerging technologies

  • ITER

    • Multinational collaboration 

    • World’s largest tokamak 

    • Aims to achieve net energy gain 

      • More output than input 

      • 500 MW from 50 MW

    • In-vessel tritium production 

  • NIF

    • Laser-based inertial confinement 

    • Aims to achieve net energy gain 

    • Laser beams → amplifier of mirrors and optics → beam converges at holruam → shock wave → heat → fusion reactions

Nuclear Fission

• Nonrenewable 

  • Splitting atoms of neutrons to release energy in form of heat and radiation 

  • Uranium ore is finite → cannot be replenished once mined 

  • Small amounts of uranium can generate a lot of energy 

• Process 

  • Mills

    • Transport uranium ore → crush to fine particles → leach

  • In-situ leaching 

    • Dissolve uranium ore using leaching solution → pump up desired minerals

  • Uranium chain reaction 

    • Fission of atom → release of neutrons → split other atoms → release neutrons

  • Uranium 

    • 235 - less common, fissile 

    • 238 - fertile 

• Infrastructure

  • Nuclear power plant 

    • Fuel rods

      • Steel rods with radioactive pellets

    • Reactor 

      • Inside rods 

      • Fission occurs in atoms → release heat

      • Rods lowered in water → steam created

    • Turbine 

      • steam → turbine → powers generator → produces electricity

    • Condenser 

      • Steam turned back to water → water can be reused 

      • Cooling tower releases excess steam 

• Emerging technologies

  • Thorium fuel

    • More abundant in Earth’s crust 

    • Cleaner than uranium 

    • Not fissile → requires processing 

  • Small modular reactors (SMRs)

    • Safer

    • Smaller carbon footprint

    • Constructed in rural areas 

    • Efficient 

  • 3D printing and AI

    • Available 

    • Safer

    • Needs less onsite workers

Natural Gas

• Nonrenewable 

  • Made from hydrocarbons 

  • Formed by remains of organisms through pressure and heat over time 

  • Used in electricity, heating, transportation 

• Process

  • Extraction 

  • Conversion 

• Infrastructure 

  • Wells

  • Processing plants 

  • Pipelines 

  • Storage facilities

Hydroelectric Energy

• Inexhaustible

  • Running water 

    • Hydropower - energy transferred from water to generator 

  • Water cycle is unending → powered by sun

• Process

  • Something diverts flow of water

  • gravity → water from higher to lower elevation → water flows through penstock (pipe) → turns turbine → generator → mechanical energy to electrical energy 

• Infrastructure 

  • Needs reservoir/lake, river, change in elevation 

  • Water diversion

    • Dam with penstock

  • Power plant 

    • For processing 

    • Generator, turbine, pump

  • Power grid 

    • Distributes power 

• Emerging technologies

  • Archimedes screw

    • Fish friendly 

    • Efficient - operates in rivers with low flow speed 

    • High cost 

      • Composite materials could be used to lower cost 

  • Hydropower digitization

    • Capture production values 

    • Faster fix time 

      • Can quickly assess unexpected behavior 

      • hydEA (hydro, efficiency, analysis)

      • Hydro-clone (RTSM)

  • Hybrid power 

    • Combination of many renewable systems in one area 

    • Hydropower

    • Ow cost for generators and transmission systems 

    • Pumped storage

Geothermal Energy

• Inexhaustible

  • Energy using heat stored in Earth 

    • Continuously replenished by decay of radioactive elements 

  • Captures heat from Earth’s crust from geothermal plants 

  • Direct use or electricity generation 

    • Direct use - direct heating purposes 

• Process 

  • Need to identify and explore potential geothermal sites

  • Power plants 

    • Drills into reservoirs of underground water and steam → hot water brought to surface → produces steam → drives turbines for electricity → steam condenses water → water re-injected into surface again 

    • Dry steam power plants 

      • Hot, pressurized steam → electricity

    • Flash steam power plants 

      • water → steam and water → electricity 

    • Binary steam power plants 

      • Heat from water → liquid → steam

• Infrastructure 

  • Power generation - well pads, drilling rigs, production well, turbine, generatore, injection well, heat exchanger 

  • Environmental mitigation - injection system, environmental monitoring 

  • Geothermal vents 

    • Deep well drilled into Earth 

    • Obtain heat or pump liquid 

  • Turbines

    • Pump steam from vents → turn turbines → electric generator

  • Transmission lines 

    • Carried electric energy from one point to another

  • Condensers 

    • Condenses steam → liquid water → pumped into Earth 

• Emerging technologies

  • Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS)

    • Man-made reservoirs 

    • Increase permeability of subsurface 

    • Fluid injected → reopens pre-existing fractures

    • Liquid circulate and heat up 

  • Advanced geothermal systems (AGS)

    • Closed loop systems 

    • Fluid kept inside wells → exposed to heat 

    • Reduces water consumption

    • Risks inducing earthquakes 

    • Can be applied anywhere 

  • Advanced drilling techniques 

    • Potential carbon-free geothermal energy 

  • Hydraulic fracturing techniques 

    • Fracking - creating fractures in rocks and rock formations by injecting specialized fluid into cracks to force them to open further

    • Fracking hot rocks 

    • Related to EGS 

Oil/Petroleum

• Nonrenewable 

  • Limited supply due to time to replenish - needs millions of years, no replacement 

  • Algae, bacteria, sediment → heat and pressure over millions of years → created sedimentary basins → compressed into erogen → hydrocarbons 

• Process 

  • Petroleum extracted as crude oil 

  • Oil rigs and oil platforms 

  • Air rotary drilling rig

  • Refining process for crude oil 

    • Distillation towers → heated 

    • Different components of crude oil → condense on different layers

    • Oil prepared for future use 

• Infrastructure 

  • Oil rigs and platforms 

    • Pipelines 

  • Refinery plant 

    • oil → fuel

  • Electrical plant 

    • fuel → electricity 

  • Electrical grid 

    • Power → people

• Emerging technologies

  • Safety 

    • Robotics

    • Drones 

  • Efficiency 

    • AI

    • Cloud computing 

  • Sustainability 

    • Carbon capture 

    • Storage systems

Coal

• Nonrenewable 

  • Sedimentary rock with carbons and hydrocarbons 

  • Slow process, slowly replenished 

  • Organisms die → buried under earth  → heat and pressure → chemical and physical change → coal 

• Process 

  • Surface mining 

    • Electric + hydraulic shovels, drills, bulldozers

    • Remove overburden

    • Cheaper option

    • Torn landscapes, habitats and ecosystems destroyed

  • Underground (longwall) mining 

    • Thick and large panels of coal are sliced off by longwall shearers → panels moved by a conveyor belt + shuttle cars back to the surface

  • Processing in power plants 

    • Coal combustion → heat production → high-pressure steam → drives a turbine → produces electricity → electric current transmitted through power lines → homes, buildings

Biomass

• Renewable 

  • Living or recently dead organisms or organism byproducts 

  • Biofuel - liquid resultant from biomass, can be used as fuel, emits less carbon 

• Process

  • Can be burned directly for heating and electricity

  • Pyrolysis 

    • heating organic material without oxygen → start chemical reactions in biomass → turn to biofuel (bio-oil, bio-char, synthetic gas)

  • Gasification 

    • Heating solid waste with small amounts of oxygen

    • Produces syngas and slag 

    • Syngas - used in transportation and fertilizer

    • Slag - used in cement and asphalt 

  • Fermentation 

    • Anaerobic process → converts sugars in organic matter to alcohols and acids → creates ethanol 

    • Dehydrate ethanol → high concentrations of alcohol 

• Infrastructure 

  • Facilities to support feedstock production, biomass, transportation, biofuel production, and biofuel transportation 

    • Feedstock - growing crops and livestock for waste 

    • Transportation - large energy input 

    • Biofuel production - various technologies 

      • Biorefineries - costly, does all work in converting biomass into resources 

      • Biofuel transportation - similar to traditional gasoline and diesel engines

Atom

smallest unit of a chemical element; made of protons, neutrons, electrons

Protons

positively charged particles

Electron

negatively charged particle

Element

• Substance made up of atoms of the same type and cannot be broken down

• Isotope: different number of neutrons

• Ion: different number of electrons

Bohr Model vs. Electron Shell Model

• Bohr (planetary) model uses simple drawings of rings to showcase energy levels

• Electron Shell Model has electron shells (more accurate since electrons don’t just go in a flat orbit)

What does having more electrons on the valence shell indicate?

More electrons on valence shell means more stable (each shell can hold a certain number of electrons, but valence shell can only hold max of 8 electrons)

Coulomb’s Law

• Attractive force (electrostatic force) between 2 charges in inversely proportional to the distance between them

  • as distance between nucleus and valence electrons increase, less ionization is needed to move electrons

• Explains why certain atoms with same number of valence electrons have different conductivities

  • Ex. silver is a better conductor than copper because silver’s valence shell is further from nucleus, even though they both have the same number of valence electrons

Electricity

• Flow of electric charge

• Can occur naturally (ex. lightning) can be controlled using circuits

Conductance

Property that describes a material’s ability to allow flow of electric charge

Ionization Energy

Amount of energy needed to remove an electron from the valence shell

Conductors

A material with high conductance

• Electrons flow easily between atoms

• 1-3 valence electrons in outer orbit

• Low ionization energy

• Ex. silver, copper, gold, aluminum, platinum

Insulators

A material with low conductance

• Electron flow is difficult between atoms

• 5-8 valence electron in outer orbit

• High ionization energy

• Ex. Mica, glass, quartz, sulfur

  • Quartz is also piezoelectric (can generate AC voltage when subjected to mechanical stress or vibration)

Current

Flow rate of electric charge in a circuit

• Amount of charge (Q) per unit time unit that passes through an imaginary surface that is perpendicular to the motion of the charges

  • Measured in Coulombs/sec = amps

• Atoms do not move → electrons jump from valence shell to valence shell

Resistance

• Measure of how difficult it is to pass amount through a wire/component (Ω)

• Depends on resistivity, length, and cross sectional area

• R=ρL/A

  • Increase length = increase friction 

  • Designers have control over components

• 

Resistivity

• Measure of a material’s ability to resist the flow of charge (Ωm)

  • ρ=E/J

    • E = electric field (N/C or V/m): physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles

    • J = Current Density (per unit area): current that flows per unit area of chosen cross section

      • J=I/A

  • Intrinsic material property and reciprocal of conductivity

    • Meanwhile, resistance takes into account length of component

Direct Current

• One direction 

• Anode → circuit → cathode 

• Useful, portable, can be converted to AC

• Voltage and current can vary but direction is constant

Alternating Current

• Electrons alternate directions 

• Current moves along rotating wire 

• Direction of current periodically changes 

• Generates sinusoidal graph

Conventional Current Model

• Assumes positive charge flows from cathode through circuit and into anode 

• Same result as electrons flow 

• + sign corresponds with high electric potential energy

• use this one

• 

Electron Flow

• Electrons flow from anode (high energy state/electric potential) to cathode (low energy state/electric potential)

• 

Field

• Physical quantity represented by number, array of numbers or function that value can be assigned to at every point in space-time 

• Spread over large region  

• Interact with objects in field

• 

Electric Field

• Originate from electric charge or time-varying magnetic field 

• Shows direction positively charged particles will move when placed in field 

• Electric fields act with on other electric charges placed in field - attract or repel 

• Vector quantity 

• Describes electrical force exerted by charge

• 

Voltage

• Change in work required per unit charge to move charge from point A to point B in circuit

  • ΔV = W/q

• Measured in joules/Coulomb  → volts 

• Δv measured by voltmeter represents voltage drop or rise across circuit component 

  • Drop - voltage lost, resistance 

  • Rise - voltage gain, power source 

  • Drops = rises 

• More voltage = more electron flow 

• If two points are at same EPE, no work

  • EPEB = EPEA

  • WAB = 0 

Batteries

• use DC

  • anode: negative end

  • cathode: positive end

• idk what else

Reading Resistor Values

• first band + second band (at face value) * multiplier ± tolerance

• Example: first band: 1, second band: 0, multiplier: 100, tolerance: 5%

  • 10*100 Ω ± 5%

  • 1000 Ω ± 5%

Cell Circuit symbol

Battery Symbol

Voltage Source Symbol

Switch Circuit Symbol

Voltmeter Symbol

Ammeter Symbol

Resistor Symbol

Variable Resistor (Potentiometer) Symbol

Inductor Symbol

Capacitor Symbol

Fuse Symbol

Diode Symbol

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Symbol

Earth Ground Symbol

Chassis Ground Symbol

Pushbutton Switch Symbol

Electric Wire Symbol

Motor Symbol

Circuit Diagram

• line represents wires

• no current flows if the lines (connecting devices) do NOT form a closed loop

Circuit’s Ground

• Additional path for electrical current to return safely to Earth (ground) without danger in the event of a short circuit

• circuit breaker will trip to protect circuit is fuse blows out

Multimeter

• device used to measure the various attributes of an electrical circuit (current, resistance, voltage)

  • display

  • buttons

  • dial for measurement section (voltage, resistance, current, continuity, etc.)

• Red probe: measuring lead (+)

• Black probe stays in "COM" port

• move red probe depending on what is being measured

Voltmeter

• A device used to measure voltage, or electrical potential energy difference

• place voltmeter PARALLEL with component to measure voltage, drop/gain across component

  • do not place in series with components

• red probe on high potential side (+)

• black probe on low potential side (-)

Ammeter

• a device used to measure current

• place in SERIES with components

  • do not place in parallel with component → creates shirt circuit and increased total current in circuit → blows out fuse

• has zero resistance

• negligible affect on total resistance in circuit

Breadboards

• Reusable platform that allows you to temporarily build and then disassemble electrical circuits

  • power rails: red and blue (black) columns located at A and D

  • red column: current enters circuit from power supply

  • blue (black): current leaves circuit and returns to power supply

• provides ability to quickly modify components during development and testing

• no soldering needed to make circuit connections

Electrical Polarity

refers to whether a circuit component is symmetric or not

Non-Polarized

• symmetric component where current can flow through it in either direction (wire, resistor, etc,)

• no correct input or output side (two-way street)

• current flows in either direction

Polarized

component with polarity, allowing current flow in one direction

Ohmmeter

• disconnect power supply from circuit

• switch to ohmmeter mode

• place in PARALLEL with resistor

Open Circuit

An incomplete circuit due to an opening or gap that prevents direct current (DC) flow

Short Circuit

When a path of lower than intended resistance is provided for the current, usually as the result of some sort of accidental contact (shortcut for the current)

Resistance of Circuits in Series

Rt = R1 + R2 + … + Rn

Current of Circuits in Series

It = I1 = I2 = … = In

Resistance of Circuits in Parallel

1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn

Current of Circuits in Parallel

It = I1 + I2 + … + In

How to decrease system efficiency

•  increasing time

• decreasing force

• increasing current 

How to find mechanical system efficiency

1. find work output (W = Fd)

2. find power output (Pout = Wout/t)

3. find power input (Pin = IV)

4. find efficiency (Pout/Pin * 100)

When is maximum motor power delivers?

half the stall torque

Convert RPM → rad/s

#rev/min * 2pi rad/60 seconds

How many times is the function “setUp()” ran?

once

Which function begins the serial monitor?

Serial.begin()

If a button is being pushed, what does digitalRead(pushButton) return?

1

What is a duty cycle?

% of time signal is HIGH

What symbol indicates that a pin has PWM capabilities?

~

How is the color violence made using the RGB LED?

violet = red + blue

(255, 0, 255)

How to import library into C

DHT11 → #include <DHT.h>

PWM

A technique that allows you to simulate an analog signal using digital means

PWM values range

[0, 255]

potentiometer values range

[0, 1023]

Wire color conventions

• Black: ground 

• Red: 5V

• Orange: 3.3V

• Other colors for signal wires

digital pins

• allows you to connect digital sensors and other integrated circuits

• allow you to read digital inputs and control outputs

• digital signals are either HIGH (1) or LOW (0)

• pins 0-13 for GPIO

• digital pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 have a ~

  • allows you to perform PWM

Analog In

• used to read analog inputs

• analog signals can take an infinite number of values within a range of values

• A0 - A5 used to input analog signal from Arduino

Arduino measures the value of analog signals by using ___, which converts ___ to ___

analog-to-digital converter (ADC); analog voltage; digital value

Analog voltages are converted to digital values from the range __

[0, 1023]