Chapter 15: India and the Indian Ocean Basin

Collapse of Gupta Empire

The Gupta state collapsed in the mid-sixth century after repeated invasions from the White Huns, leading to centuries of chaos in northern India marked by political fragmentation, local power struggles, and nomadic Turkic incursions.

King Harsha’s Rule (606–648 C.E.)

King Harsha briefly restored unity in northern India, was a tolerant Buddhist ruler, promoted charity, patronized the arts, wrote plays, but was assassinated with no strong successor to maintain centralized control.

Arab Conquest of Sind (711 C.E.)

Arab forces conquered Sind in northwestern India, bringing the region into the Islamic world. Though culturally diverse and heterodox, it was absorbed into the Abbasid Caliphate and linked India to Muslim trade.

Muslim Merchants in India

Long before Islam, Arab traders dominated Indian Ocean commerce. After Islam’s rise, Muslim merchants established small coastal communities in cities like Cambay, influencing local culture and spreading faith through trade.

Turkish Migration and Islam

Nomadic Turks converted to Islam in the tenth century. Some migrated into Afghanistan, creating Islamic states that launched raids into northern India, blending Central Asian warrior traditions with Islamic identity.

Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 997–1030 C.E.)

The Turkic leader Mahmud of Ghazni led 17 raids into India (1001–1027), plundering cities and destroying Hindu and Buddhist temples, most famously the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1025.

Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526 C.E.)

Established by Mahmud’s successors, the Delhi Sultanate controlled northern India for three centuries, though authority was fragile, heavily reliant on Hindu cooperation, and marked by political instability with many rulers assassinated.

Chola Kingdom (850–1267 C.E.)

A powerful southern Hindu state, the Chola kingdom dominated the Coromandel coast, built a strong navy, and expanded influence into Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, though it allowed local autonomy and declined by the 12th century.

Vijayanagar Kingdom (1336–1565 C.E.)

Founded by two brothers formerly aligned with Delhi, Vijayanagar rejected Islam in 1336, reasserted Hindu identity, and created a strong southern state, though it maintained pragmatic ties with Muslim sultanates.

Monsoon Agriculture

South Asia’s economy depended on monsoons. Farmers used reservoirs, canals, and irrigation systems to harness seasonal rains. Massive eleventh-century reservoirs could cover 250 square miles, helping prevent drought and famine.

Population and Urbanization

Improved agriculture led to population growth from 53 million in 600 C.E. to 105 million by 1500 C.E. Cities like Delhi and major ports flourished as centers of commerce, culture, and politics.

Southern India’s Trade

South India thrived economically, producing iron, copper, salt, and pepper. Its stability allowed it to profit from northern instability, with trade networks connecting it across the Indian Ocean and boosting growth.

Hindu Temples as Social Centers

Beyond religion, Hindu temples became centers of education, irrigation management, tax collection, landholding, and banking. They integrated society by coordinating agriculture, offering services, and supporting local economies in southern India.

Maritime Technology: Dhows and Junks

Indian Ocean trade boomed with the use of large ships like Arab dhows and Chinese junks. These vessels transported bulk cargoes across long distances, making Indian Ocean trade highly interconnected.

Emporia and Port Cities

Indian port cities such as Cambay and Calicut became cosmopolitan emporia, serving as warehouses, markets, and meeting points for global merchants trading silk, porcelain, spices, cotton, gems, ivory, and slaves.

Specialized Industries in India

Indian artisans produced high-quality cotton textiles, sugar, leather, stone carvings, carpets, iron, and especially high-carbon steel, making India a manufacturing hub that fueled trade across Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.

Kingdom of Axum (1st–6th centuries C.E.)

Located in Ethiopia, Axum grew wealthy from trade, adopted Christianity, conquered Kush, destroyed its capital Meroë, and expanded until the sixth century while resisting Islamic conversion pressures.

Caste Expansion and Jati

The caste system expanded into southern India, integrating immigrants like Turks and Muslims. Jatis (subcastes) functioned like guilds, regulating work and trade, helping stabilize society in absence of centralized authority.

Decline of Buddhism in India

Buddhism weakened due to Turkish invasions that destroyed temples and sites like Nalanda in 1196. Thousands of monks were killed or exiled, leaving Hinduism and Islam as the dominant religions.

Hindu Devotional Cults

Hinduism grew through devotional (bhakti) movements focused on deities like Vishnu and Shiva. These cults promised salvation through devotion, spreading especially in the south but also gaining popularity in the north.

Shankara (9th century)

A philosopher devoted to Shiva, Shankara synthesized Hindu teachings with Platonic logic. He emphasized intellectual reasoning and metaphysics over emotional devotion, laying a foundation for Hindu philosophical traditions.

Ramanuja (11th–12th centuries)

A philosopher and devotee of Vishnu, Ramanuja rejected Shankara’s logic-based approach, teaching that deep devotion to God mattered more than abstract reasoning, shaping later forms of popular Hinduism.

Spread of Islam in India

By 1500, around 25 million Indians (a quarter of the population) converted to Islam. Many lower-caste Hindus sought social mobility, though real improvement of status was rare after conversion.

Sufis in India

Sufi mystics were effective missionaries in India, spreading Islam with personal, emotional devotion. They allowed local customs, emphasizing love and piety, making Islam more appealing across diverse Indian communities.

Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement sought to bridge Hinduism and Islam through devotion. Guru Kabir (1440–1518) taught that Vishnu, Shiva, and Allah were manifestations of one god, though the movement failed to unify faiths.