Introduction to Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathophysiology

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the basics of human anatomy, physiology, cellular adaptation, injury, and pathology.

Anatomy

The science of body structures and the relationships among them, derived from the Greek words ana- meaning "up" and -tomy meaning "the process of cutting".

Andreas Vesalius

The Flemish scientist who, along with his contemporaries during the Renaissance in Europe, is credited with the start of modern anatomy.

Dissection

The careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships, from the root words dis- meaning "apart" and -section meaning "act of cutting".

Gross Anatomy

Also termed macroscopic anatomy, this is the study of larger body structures visible without the aid of magnification.

Microscopic Anatomy

The study of anatomy that can only be observed through a microscope, including cytology (the study of cells) and histology (the study of tissues).

Physiology

The science of body functions and the study of how the body and its parts work, from the roots physio- meaning "nature" and -logy meaning "study of".

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical processes occurring in the body, which includes catabolism (breakdown of complex substances) and anabolism (building complex substances).

Differentiation

The process by which unspecialized cells develop into specialized cells with specific functions, such as stem cells becoming different types of body cells.

Homeostasis

The condition of equilibrium or balance in the body’s internal environment maintained by the constant interaction of regulatory processes.

Interstitial fluid

The fluid that fills spaces between tissue cells; it is considered the body’s internal environment because cell function depends on its stable composition.

Receptor

A component of a feedback system that detects changes in a controlled condition and sends information to the control center through the afferent pathway.

Control Center

A component of a feedback system that determines the set point, evaluates received information, and sends commands through the efferent pathway.

Negative Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism that reverses or reduces a change in a controlled condition to bring the body back to normal; it is the most common type of feedback.

Positive Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism that strengthens or amplifies a change in a controlled condition until a specific event stops the process, such as during childbirth.

Pathology

The study of disease, including its causes, structural changes, and effects on tissues and organs; literally translates to "the study of suffering".

Pathophysiology

The study of how disease changes normal body functions.

Symptoms

Subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer, such as headache, nausea, and anxiety.

Signs

Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure, categorized as anatomical (swelling, rash) or physiological (fever, high blood pressure).

Epidemiology

The science dealing with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community.

Rudolf Virchow

Known as the father of modern pathology, he introduced the concept of the cellular basis of disease, stating that individuals are sick because their cells are sick.

Etiology

The initiating cause of a disease, which may be classified as genetic (inherited/acquired mutations) or environmental (infectious, chemical, or physical agents).

Pathogenesis

The sequence of molecular, biochemical, and cellular events following exposure of cells to an injurious agent that lead to the development of disease.

Morphologic changes

Structural alterations in cells or tissues that are characteristic of a disease and diagnostic of an etiologic process.

Hypertrophy

An increase in the size of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells, often involving increased protein synthesis.

Hyperplasia

An increase in the size of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the number of cells.

Atrophy

A decrease in the size of an organ or tissue due to a decrease in the mass of pre-existing cells, often characterized by autophagic granules.

Metaplasia

The replacement of one differentiated tissue by another; examples include squamous metaplasia and osseous metaplasia.

Hypoxia

Oxygen deprivation that causes cell injury by reducing aerobic oxidative respiration; common causes include ischemia and cardiorespiratory failure.

Free Radicals

Molecules with a single unpaired electron in the outer orbital, such as superoxide radicals and hydroxyl radicals, which can cause cell injury.

Necrosis

The sum of degradative and inflammatory reactions occurring after tissue death caused by injury in a living organism.

Coagulative Necrosis

A type of necrosis resulting from sudden ischemia (except in the CNS), characterized by the preservation of tissue architecture in early stages and protein denaturation.

Liquefactive Necrosis

A type of necrosis resulting in tissue digestion and softening, characteristic of ischemic injury to the CNS and suppurative infections (pus formation).

Caseous Necrosis

A type of necrosis appearing cheese-like grossly and amorphous eosinophilic histologically, primarily associated with tuberculosis.

Fat Necrosis

Necrosis involving the digestion of fat by pancreatic enzymes, leading to the formation of calcium soaps (saponification) or occurring after trauma to fatty tissue.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; a mechanism for removing single cells or clusters with irreparable DNA damage without triggering an inflammatory response.

Hemosiderin

An iron-containing pigment consisting of ferritin aggregates that appears as golden-brown amorphous aggregates and stains positive with Prussian blue.

Lipofuscin

A yellowish, fat-soluble "wear-and-tear" pigment that is an end product of membrane lipid peroxidation and accumulates in elderly patients.

Metastatic Calcification

Calcification caused by hypercalcemia in various tissues, often due to hyperparathyroidism or hypervitaminosis D.

Dystrophic Calcification

Calcification that occurs in previously damaged tissue (such as scarred heart valves) while serum calcium levels remain normal.