HCR 240 Final Study Guide: Key Terms and Concepts (Modules 4-7)

Question-and-answer flashcards covering muscles, GI, liver, endocrine, renal, urinary, reproductive, and neurological topics from Modules 4-7, plus Module 7 terminology.

What appearance is Crohn's disease often associated with due to thickening of the epithelial wall?

Cobblestone and skip lesions throughout the GI tract.

A bacteria that is often found in patients with GERD and stomach ulcers.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).

A sign or symptom of liver disease where fluid builds up in the abdomen.

Edema (abdominal) due to decreased albumin synthesis.

Thinning of the trabecular matrix just before onset of osteoporosis.

Osteopenia.

Delayed stomach opening that can cause GERD.

Gastroparesis.

Inflammation of muscle and joints.

Arthritis.

Loss of fat in stools, sign of celiac disease.

Steatorrhea.

The bacteria that often causes osteomyelitis.

Staphylococcus aureus.

Disease where the large intestine is twisting.

Volvulus.

The diseases where discs between vertebrae become compressed or misaligned.

Degenerative disc disease (DDD).

Gallbladder is producing gallstones.

Cholelithiasis.

Another name for a bull's eye rash of Lyme Disease.

Erythema migrans.

Bleeding from hemorrhoids.

Hematochezia.

Blood in stool.

Melena.

Infection of gallbladder leading to purulent effusion.

Empyema.

Two types of swelling in osteoarthritis and how they differ.

Inflammatory swelling with active inflammation and effusion; non-inflammatory swelling from cartilage/bone changes (bone-on-bone) leading to stiffness.

Usual risk factors of osteoporosis.

Female gender, postmenopausal status, lack of estrogen, low calcium/Vitamin D, sedentary lifestyle, smoking, excessive alcohol/caffeine, family history, ethnicity, corticosteroids, thyroid/parathyroid disorders, anticonvulsants.

How can a joint be infected? Name two routes.

Hematogenous spread and contiguous spread (risk factors include trauma/surgery and sepsis).

Describe how uric acid crystals affect regions of the body due to hyperuricemia.

Uric acid crystals deposit as tophi in subcutaneous tissue (often in the big toe) and can form kidney stones.

Name the three types of hernia and how they differ.

Reducible (can be reduced; not life-threatening), incarcerated (organs trapped; may require surgery), strangulated (blood supply cut off; life-threatening; immediate surgery).

Difference between Celiac disease, Crohn's disease and Ulcerative Colitis.

Celiac: autoimmune reaction to gluten in small intestine; Crohn's: transmural inflammation with skip lesions and cobblestone appearance; Ulcerative Colitis: autoimmune inflammation/ulceration in colon with pseudopolyps.

What abdominal pain is associated with appendicitis?

Right lower quadrant (RLQ) pain; positive psoas sign and obturator sign.

What are diverticula? Where do they occur? Main cause?

Outpouchings of the colon, most often in the descending/sigmoid colon; caused by weakened muscle walls; can be hereditary; low-fiber diet contributes.

What is an ulcer? Where do most ulcers occur? How are ulcers created?

Inflammatory erosion of the stomach or duodenum; causes include H. pylori infection, NSAID overuse, stress, alcohol, caffeine, smoking, genetic susceptibility.

Explain why a patient with advanced liver failure displays Ascites.

Fluid accumulation in the abdomen due to reduced albumin synthesis and altered osmotic pressures.

Explain why a patient with advanced liver failure displays Esophageal bleeding.

Esophageal varices from portal hypertension due to failing liver.

Jaundice explanation.

Due to decreased bile production causing bilirubin and pigment buildup in blood/skin.

Confusion in advanced liver failure.

Impaired removal of ammonia and other toxins leading to altered brain function.

Elevated ammonia explanation.

Accumulation of ammonia from reduced hepatic filtration leading to neurotoxicity.

Melena explanation.

Blood in feces commonly associated with liver dysfunction (tar-like stool).

Hepatomegaly explanation.

Enlarged liver due to fibrosis, edema, and remaining functional tissue.

Prolonged clotting time explanation.

Decreased synthesis of coagulation factors by the liver.

Excessive bruising explanation.

Increased bleeding risk from portal hypertension and reduced liver function.

Steatorrhea explanation.

Fat in feces due to malabsorption from reduced bile production.

Calcium issues explanation.

Poor fat absorption lowers vitamin D availability and calcium absorption.

Causes of hepatitis (viral and nonviral).

Viral: HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV; Nonviral: toxins/drugs and autoimmune disease.

Explain how gallbladder dysfunction can affect bile duct, liver, and pancreas.

Stones in the common bile duct can back up bile into the gallbladder and liver and obstruct flow, potentially causing pancreatitis.

Ischemic penumbra.

Perimeter of brain ischemia with reduced perfusion but potentially reversible function.

Transient ischemic attacks (TIA).

Small, temporary focal neurologic events that usually resolve on their own.

Polydipsia.

Increased thirst and fluid intake; symptom of diabetes.

Dopamine in Parkinson's disease.

Progressive loss of dopamine neurotransmitter.

Cushing's Syndrome is due to an increase of which hormone?

Cortisol.

Weakness on one side of the body.

Hemiparesis (hemiparalysis in notes).

Endocrine dysfunction due to abnormal pituitary activity.

Secondary endocrine dysfunction.

Enlargement of the thyroid due to excess TSH.

Hypothyroidism/Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.

Cerebral aneurysm is an example of which type of stroke?

Hemorrhagic stroke.

Causes of ischemic stroke that create clot formation via blood stasis.

Arteriosclerosis, stenosis, atrial fibrillation.

Hyperthyroidism symptom with bulging eyes.

Graves’ disease exophthalmos.

Protective sheath around an axon that may deteriorate in nervous diseases.

Myelin.

Difference between Diabetes insipidus and Diabetes mellitus.

Diabetes insipidus: posterior pituitary dysfunction with decreased ADH; Diabetes mellitus: impaired glucose control due to insufficient insulin or insulin resistance.

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

Anxiety, tremor, tachycardia, heat intolerance, weight loss, exophthalmos, possible atrial fibrillation.

Symptoms of hypothyroidism.

Weight gain, cold intolerance, fatigue, constipation, lethargy, memory issues.

Glutamate toxicity mechanism in cerebrovascular injury.

Ischemia causes ion pump failure, calcium influx, glutamate release, excitotoxicity leading to cell death.

Describe seizure types.

Focal (one hemisphere) and generalized (both hemispheres); categories: clonic, atonic, myoclonus, absence (nonmotor).

Differences among Myasthenia Gravis, Multiple Sclerosis, and Guillain-Barré Syndrome.

MG: autoimmune attack on acetylcholine receptors causing muscle weakness; MS: autoimmune CNS demyelination; GBS: autoimmune peripheral nerve demyelination with ascending weakness.

One example of a prerenal disease.

Decreased kidney perfusion (e.g., dehydration).

One example of an intrarenal disease.

Intrinsic kidney injury (e.g., nephritis, lupus nephritis).

One example of a postrenal disease.

Urinary tract obstruction (e.g., kidney stone, ureteral obstruction).

How nephrolithiasis can lead to pyelonephritis.

Urinary obstruction and stasis promote bacterial ascent from the bladder to the kidney.

Chronic renal failure stages and GFR ranges.

Stage 1: normal/high GFR (>90); Stage 2: mild reduction (60–89); Stage 3: moderate (30–59); Stage 4: severe (15–29); Stage 5: kidney failure (<15).

Why are female risk factors for UTIs higher than males?

Shorter urethra and proximity to vagina/anus facilitates bacterial spread; other risks include dehydration, diabetes, irritants, catheterization.

Types of urinary incontinence.

Stress, urge (overactive detrusor), overflow, detrusor underactivity, neurogenic bladder, functional.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) leading infertility.

Ovary forms multiple cysts with anovulation due to hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis dysfunction.

Where does endometriosis commonly occur and how does it cause bleeding?

Ovaries, ligaments, pelvic peritoneum, and uterus (ectopic endometrial tissue) that bleeds in response to hormones.

Three theories for endometriosis.

Regurgitation/implantation: endometrial tissue moves through tubes; Metaplastic: embryologic misplacement; Vascular/lymphatic spread: dissemination via blood/lymph.

Pathogenesis and population affected by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

Excess cell growth in aging men; common in men >80; testosterone-sensitive enlargement obstructing the urethra.

Three common causes of erectile dysfunction.

Atherosclerosis, diabetes, certain medications (and other factors like alcohol, hormonal imbalances).

Module 7 terms: Blood in urine.

Hematuria.

Module 7 terms: Absence of menstrual period.

Amenorrhea.

Module 7 terms: Most common bacteria causing UTI.

Escherichia coli (E. coli).

Module 7 terms: Most common cancer in males aged 15–35 in the U.S.

Testicular cancer.

Module 7 terms: Kidney stones.

Urolithiasis.

Module 7 terms: Bacterial infection that often ascends from the vagina.

Vaginitis.

Module 7 terms: Urine backup into the kidney.

Obstructive uropathy.

Module 7 terms: Delayed puberty in females (age 13).

Delayed puberty.

Module 7 terms: Removal of the testes.

Orchiectomy.

Module 7 terms: White blood cells in the urine.

Urinalysis with leukocyte esterase (WBCs in urine).

Module 7 terms: Assessment for benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Digital rectal examination (DRE).

Module 7 terms: Infrequent menstrual periods.

Oligomenorrhea.