the british empire - imperial consolidation & liberal rule - 1890 - 1914 - Africa

What happened in the aftermath of the Mahidist Revolt?

The death of the Mahdi in 1885 (after Gordon) led to Khalifia Abdullah taking control of Sudan as Gladstone never got involved in Sudan after the revolt.

He tried to bring the people of Sudan together he was unable to do this due to infighting, disease & famine.

Why did Britain shift their focus onto Sudan & Egypt in 1885 - 1890?

There was a change in Prime Minister from Gladstone to Salisbury

• Salisbury believed Egypt was vital to the passage to India and wanted the reconquer at least parts of Sudan in order to keep the passage & Egypt secure

• Salisbury was also worried about the interest of other European nations in Africa especially about French & German expansion inland in E.Africa

Why was Salisbury so worried about French & German movement in inland E.Africa?

He feared they waned to take control over the headwaters of the Nile which was vital for the welfare of Egypt.

What actions did Salisbury take to keep Britain’s rivals out of Egypt?

1890 - signed a treaty with the Germans where they agreed to take Tanganyika & Britain took Kenya & Uganda

Persuade French to concentrate on West Africa

However Italian expansion on the Red Coast Sea was seen as beneficial as it diverted the Khalifas attention away from the Sudan-Egypt borders.

Which event pushed Salisbury into starting a campaign in the Sudan?

Defeat of Italian forces on the Red Sea Coast border at Adowa by Ethiopian resistance in 1896 - attempt to seize Abyssina.

The diversionary help was lost as Khalifia Abdullah was no longer distracted by the Italians - this gave Salisbury the excuse for a British campaign in Sudan.

How was Salisbury’s plan for a campaign in the Sudan viewed in Britian?

It was welcomed in Britain as an opportunity to avenge the death of General Gordon in the Mahdist revolt.

What was the plan for the Sudan campaign?

General Sir Herbert Kitchener - Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Army (1896) - was given orders to penetrate Sudanese territory as far as Dongola.

What actually happened in the Sudan campaign?

• Kitchener wanted to go beyond his orders and take Khartoum & conquer the whole region

• He was successful in this at the Battle of Omdurman - 1898 - as he won due to heavy use of modern weaponry e.g. Maxim gun while his opponents were equipped with much older weaponry

• Kitchener had been given sealed orders by Salisbury to open after defeating the Sudanese

• This ordered him to go to Fashoda at the headwaters of the Nile where a French expedition under Marchland was occuring

• Kitchener went and met Marchland & both pressed their country’s claims to Fashoda accusing the other of trespassing but the exchange wasn’t fiery

• Fortunately for Salisbury the French gov was aware of the British army in Sudan & was distracted by internal problems so chose to back down

What were the consequences of the Sudan campaign?

Agreement with the French - 1899 - the French promised to stay out of the Nile Valley in return for territory further west.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan established - 1899 - agreement between Britain & Egypt that made it so that Sudan would be a condominium

• this meant that in practice Sudan would be ruled by the British with Egyptian support

• Kitchener was appointed the first Governor-General until 1902 where he was replaced by Wingate

How did the British press present the Sudan campaign?

The presented the Fashoda incident in 1898 as Britain & France being on the edge of war despite the fact that Marchland & Kitchener weren’t particularly fiery.

Kitchener’s campaign was also presented through only reports of imperial triumph even though there was struggle due to some poor strategy & that the living conditions of the majority Egyptian troops was appalling.

What did the British do in Somaliland as part of imperial consolidation?

Reinforced the Somaliland Protectorate with both administrative personnel & military personnel in 1898.

Why did Britain want to consolidate Somaliland & why is this significant?

They wanted to limit French & Italian ambitions in that area - significance/ influence of European countries as motivation for consolidation.

The thought the location was important since it commanded Britain’s crucial access to the Indian Ocean & colonies in Asia - shows significance of strategic factors in causing consolidation

What made the British become interested in South Zambesia?

The European discovery by the British that there was gold in the region and the fact that it neighbored the Transvaal led to Cecil Rhode’s British South Africa Company to establish mining concessions

This was followed up by a group of white settlers who were given permission by the gov to establish a protectorate.

Who were the people indigenous to South Zambesia?

Ndebele people - ethnically diverse nation who ruled from the capital city Bulawayo - led by King Lobengula.

The British discovery of gold in the region was obviously bad news for them.

How did the Ndebele people resist British colonisation of South Zambesia?

• First Ndebele War - 1893-94 - Ndebele loss despite having 80,000 soldiers because of BSAC’s technological superiority with Maxim guns

• This was not a total loss as King Lobengula was able to escape so resistance continued even as Rhodes tried to stamp his control over the area by naming it Rhodesia

• Second Ndebele War - 1895-96 - another unsuccessful rising against colonial rule but led by Milmo a Ndebele spiritual leader - this is event is also remembered as First Chimurenga in Zimbabwe today

What were the actions carried out by the British in Nyasaland?

• They sought control over Nyasaland - a small territory which had been opened up by Livingstone & settled by Scottish missionaries

• However they faced Portuguese-backed Arab attacks so control wasn’t established here until 1891

• Guerrilla warfare & natives resistance still occured on & off while the area was under BSAC control

• Nyasaland became a protectorate in 1907

Why did the want for a British confederation of South Africa increase/ become more vigorous in the 1890s?

The quest advocated for by Cape Colony Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes & Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain was taken up with more vigour largely to counter German territorial gains & Boer confidence caused by the Transvaal’s gold wealth.

Which event happened in 1895 that gave an excuse for British intervention in the Transvaal?

1895 - the gold-seeking Uitlanders were being denied citizenship & voting rights by the Boer gov & so sought out the help of Cecil Rhodes.

This was because Rhodes was a very powerful figure of the Rand goldfield & it gave him the excuse to intervene in a very lucrative area.

What did Cecil Rhodes plan to happen in his intervention in the Transvaal?

He wanted a planned uprising against the Boer gov with Uitlanders supporting their forces so Rhodes instructed Dr Jameson in Rhodesia to invade the Transvaal.

• Rhodesia neighbored the Transvaal & Jameson was Rhode’s agent there

What actually happened in the British invasion of the Transvaal/the Jameson Raid?

The Jameson Raid - 1895 :

• Easily defeated as only 500 mounted police were part of the “army”

• Jameson was forced to surrender against Paul Kruger after only 4 days

What were the consequences of the Jameson Raid?

• Strengthened Kruger and made him more uncompromising

• Alienated many Cape Boers from the British

• British govt realised that it could no longer pursue its SA policies by relying on capitalists such as Rhodes

• Drew Transvaal and the OFS closer in opposition to the British threat and in 1897 they signed a military pact

• Convinced Kruger that war was likely - equipped Transvaal's armies with the best European rifles and artillery

• Jameson & 12 companions were sentenced to imprisonment by a British court - Jamesons sentenced to 15 months in prison.

• Rhodes was forced to resign as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony and chairman of the BSAC

• Brought criticism etc to British gov despite no official support from them - raid's failure was humiliating for Chamberlain and Salisbury.

• Increased Boers’ determination to resist British intrusions

• Kruger became the people’s hero to the Boers' & those still living the Cape Colony formed an anti-British Afrikaner Bond to show solidarity with Boers in the Transvaal

What is an Afrikaner?

the term that gradually replaced the use of Boer but meant the same thing of an Afrikaans speaking person living in S.Africa descended from Dutch settlers

What led to the Second Anglo-Boer War?

After the Jameson raid there wasn’t any major conflict because Chamberlain - Colonial Secretary - wanted to avoid war if at all possible.

• But he also wanted to maintain British influence

However negotiations deteriorated in 1899 when the Boers anxious to attack before the British Army of South Africa could be reinforced, invaded British territory & took over Ladysmith in Natal.

What were the long term causes of the 2nd Boer War?

• Argument between Britain and the Transvaal over voting rights

• The 1882 - Convention of Pretoria meant Britian retained the right to intervene in certain domestic matters.

• Tension over the abolition of slavery and cultural differences over language and protestant values

• Discovery of gold & diamonds - economic

• Much of the Transvaal's new wealth was in the hands of British and German 'rand millionaires'

• Chamberlain encouraged the City of London to deny the Transvaal loans for long-term investment and appointed Alfred Milner - a man known to be openly hostile to the Boers

What were the short term causes of the 2nd Boer War?

• Autumn 1899 - Chamberlain, the cabinet and the majority of MPs agreed to send troops to SA to assert final pressure on Kruger

• October 1899 - Kruger sent a telegram to the British and demanded the removal of troops from the Transvaal border, when this didn't happen, he launched an attack

• The Jameson Raid brought discredit to the British govt, dismantled any remaining trust, and stiffened Boer determination to resist British intrusion, and also made Kruger a 'people's hero', creating huge nationalism

How did Alfred Milner’s actions lead to the 2nd Boer War?

At the May-June 1899 - Milner made unreasonable demands at the Bloemfontein Conference of granting Uitlanders citizenship within 5 years

Even when Kruger made a counter-offer of 7 years in return for a future guarantee of full independence and expressed a willingness to discuss 'all outstanding issues’, Milner rejected this entirely.

This shows that peace is no longer an option and increased tension.
However, Milner remained confident that Kruger would 'bluff up to the cannon's mouth' and then accept demands

What happened on October 11 1899?

Boers declare war -

In response, Salisbury said the Boers have 'liberated us from the necessity of explaining to the people of England why we are at war'

What happened in the 2nd Anglo-Boer War?

• There was initial Boer success 1899 - 1900

• But the British poured in nearly 400,000 troops from across the empire & 250 million - advantage due to more resources & money from the empire

• This led to British success from 1900 especially as they were led by Kitchener

• The British were also very brutal with a scorched earth policy designed to remove civilian support & decimate supplies & shelter for civilians & soldiers

• They also made concentration camps which held thousands of Afrikaner women, children & black African people - thousands of people died here due to disease etc

• In 1902 the Boers are defeated.

What was “Black Week”?

In the war's early months, Britain suffered a series of humiliating defeats, culminating in 'Black Week' (10-15 December) as the Boers lay siege on Ladysmith, Kimberley and Mafeking.

How did the British react to the initial Boer success in the 2nd Boer War?

450,000 extra troops and better generals such as Kitchener and Lord Roberts were sent to SA.

By mid 1900, the British had relieved all 3 areas and captured the main Boer towns.

Why was there a switch to guerrilla warfare from the Boers?

The Boers were losing against the British due to their better weapons etc so they used the advantages of knowing the terrain better etc that they had in order to continue fighting.

They used guerilla tactics to strike fast and hard against British force, raiding outposts, ambushing columns and cutting railway lines.

What strategies did Kitchener use during the 2nd Boer War?

• divided Boer territory into zones as the Boer territory was so big by sectioning them off with barbed wire, making them difficult for Boers to raid

• built 8000 fortified blockhouses, each housing 6-8 soldiers

• continued Lord Robert's scorched-earth policy - approx. 20,000 farms were burnt

• He also set up concentration camps.

What were the concentration camps build during the 2nd Boer War like?

Around 50 camps were built, each with inadequate food, poor shelter, bad hygiene, lack of medical facilities.
Over 20,000 Boer women and children died in the camps (1 in 4 inhabitants).
High death rate due to incompetence of British military authorities

How were black Africans effected by the concentration camps set up during the 2nd Boer War?

10s of 1000s of black Africans were also forced into camps with worse conditions, fewer records were kept but over 12,000 probably died.

What was the British public reaction like to the concentration camps?

The radical liberals led by Lloyd-George denounced the camps

In June 1901 - Hobhouse's description of camp conditions created a domestic and international outcry

Liberal leader Campell-Bannerman now attacked the 'methods of barbarism' used

The govt set up a commission, led by Millicent Fawcett, to investigate who confirmed everything Hobhouse had said

What did the British government do after the British public reaction to the concentration camps?

Nov 1901 - Chamberlain orders Milner to 'ensure all possible steps are taken to reduce the rate of mortality, civil authorities took over and by 1902, the mortality rate had fallen to 2%

Dec 1901 - Kitchener instructed commanders to not bring in women and children - this worked in the British's favour as guerilla fighters were now handicapped with having to care for their families

What were the consequences of the Second Anglo-Boer War?

• Peace of Vereeniging - May 1902 - Boers acknowledged themselves as British subjects, Boer republics become British colonies but with a promise of self government

• Self government is only granted in 1905

• 1905 - Prime Ministers of Transvaal, Orange Free State, Cape Colony & Natal draw up a combined constitution for the Union of South Africa

• 1910 - Union of South Africa established as a single British Dominion territory with a single parliament through An Act of Union

How were Black Africans effected by the formation of the Union of South Africa?

The Black Africans who had supported the British during the war were given no protection from settler-colonial racism under the new union.

What were the consequences of the 2nd Boer War - for the British?

• over 22,000 British soldiers died compared to around 7000 Boer soldiers died

• cost £220m by 1901

• shook Britain's confidence as an imperial power, displaying its vulnerability and made clear Britain's inability to inflict its will on a people without a cost

• involved 400,000 troops for Britain - huge cost

• brought about questions of 'national efficiency'

• dampened jingoism and support for the empire dropped - only Tories still spoke out politically for imperialism post 1901

What were the consequences of the 2nd Boer War - for South Africa?

• establishment of the Union of South Africa as a dominion within the empire in 1910

• however constitution allowed states to retain own voting policies, compromise that will create future issues

• defeat in the war brought a more distinctive 'Afrikaner' culture

• Transvaal + OFS had to accept British suzerainty BUT self-gov restored in 1906-

• Milner worked to integrate Boer-British economies - bringing them into a single customs union and amalgamating their railway systems

In which African colonies did the British face (significant) resistance in?

• British Somaliland

• Zanzibar

• West Africa - Sierra Leone

• Sudan

• The Transvaal

Who are some of the leaders in the resistance movements against the British in Africa?

• Mohammed Abdullah Hassan - Somali religious & military leader

• Khalid bun Bargash - leader of resistance in Zanzibar

• Cheif Bai Bureh - primary leader of resistance in Sierra Leone

• Paul Kruger - president of the Transvaal

What was the aim of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan?

To defend Somalia from British, Italian & Ethiopian invasion.

What caused Somali resistance against the British in 1899?

An incident occurred in Somalia where a group of Somali children were converted to Christianity by French missionaries.

In response Hassan declared his intention to drive all Christians into the sea and built up an army of around 20,000 Dervishes.

From 1900 his forces mounted raids on British Somaliland antagonising local communities.

How did the British respond to Somali resistance led by Hassan in 1900?

To counter Hassan & the army he had built, the British conducted joint military activities with Ethiopia’s Emperor Menelik, although without conclusive success.

How successful was the British response to resistance in Somalialand from 1900?

The British didn’t receive the conclusive success they had hoped for and weren’t able to suppress Hassan’s resistance until 1920, when aerial bombing was deployed to destroy the Dervish strongholds at the cost of thousands of civilian lives.

How did resistance against the British occur in Zanzibar?

Britian’s control was briefly challenged by Khalid bin Barghush who assumed power in August 1896 following the suspicious death of the previous pro-British Sultan.

How successful was resistance to the British in Zanzibar?

Although Khalid bin Barghush commanded 3000 men, he quickly fled following heavy bombardment from British ships anchored nearby.

How did British actions lead to resistance in Sierra Leone?

In 1898 the British gov Colonel Cardew introduced a new severe tax on dwellings = the hut tax, he also insisted that local chiefs organise their followers to maintain roads.

These demands were met with resistance.

How did the British respond to resistance in Sierra Leone?

Colonel Cardew responded militarily and eventually with a scorched earth policy which involved destroying whole villages, farms etc.

This tactic did work as Cardew’s primary adversary Chief Bai Bureh surrendered in Nov 1898 but by then hundreds had been killed.

Cardew even went against the British govs plea for leniency and had 96 of Chief Bai Bureh’s warriors killed.

How was resistance different in the Sudan & the Transvaal than the rest of Africa?

Resistance was less easily crushed by the British gaining and using superior weaponry/firepower.

What was British control over Sudan like after the Battle of Omdurman & the fall of Khartoum?

After 1898/ in 1899 a joint Anglo-Egyptian gov over Sudan was declared where the military & civil gov of Sudan was invested in a Governor-General.

The gov-general was appointed by the Egyptian Khedieve but nominated by the British gov - this meant in reality Britain ruled Sudan & Egypt paid while the Sudanese people’s wishes were ignored.

How did many Sudanese people react to the British & Egypt taking control over Sudan after 1898?

Many welcomed the downfall of the Mahdist regime - negative effect on economy & 50% decline in the population via famine, disease, persecution & warfare.

However the still viewed the British arrival as exchanging one oppressor for another.

Why did the British struggle to establish control in Sudan?

For the 30 years after 1898 the British struggled to gain control over South Sudan specifically as the Sudanese people refused to renounce their customs & pay tax to the British.

Uprisings occurred in 1900, 1902-3, 1904,1908

How did the British respond to resistance in Sudan?

The new colonial rulers attempted to resolve the feuds & uprisings very harshly often using the death penalty which naturally led to further uprising.

33 punitive expeditions were mounted attempting to force rebels to accept the new order & the Sudanese were often treated brutally.

Each following uprising was met with increasingly violent British reprisals.

How did the Sudan change under British control from 1899?

It experienced considerable economic development particularly in the Nile Valley.

Telegraph & railway lines were also extended to link key areas in N. Sudan and in 1906 Port Sudan was opened as the country’s first outlet to the sea.

A joint gov also set up the Geizira Scheme in 1911 to provide high-quality cotton for Britain’s textile industry & there were improvements to irrigation systems.

What level of control did Britain have over the Boer territories the Transvaal & Orange Free State?

Britain claimed suzerainty over both meaning they had control over foreign policy & affairs but not control over anything else.

However by the early 1880s, Britain had restored virtual independence to the 2 republics.

Why did the British suddenly become much more interested in the Transvaal in 1886?

In 1886 gold was discovered in the Transvaal making it the richest nation in S.Africa.

This situation threatened to tilt the balance of power between the Britons & Boers in the region towards the Boers - political & economic tension.

Who are the Uitlanders?

White often British foreigners living in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State - many had immigrated to the Transvaal to work in the gold mines hoping to make a fortune.

Some did succeed in creating a fortune and much of the Transvaal’s new wealth belonged to British & German mine owners - political tension due to great power rivalry.

Why did Uitlanders become such a significant issue in the build up to the Boer War?

By the mid-1890s, there were more Uitlanders than Boers in the Transvaal and they paid 9/10ths of its taxes.

Paul Kruger wanted to maintain Boer supremacy & made it so Uitlanders would have to have resided in the Transvaal for 14 years in order to gain full citizenship - this denied them voting rights & took away citizenship even though they paid high taxes.

The British were angered because of how British people were being treated as 2nd class citizens and they wanted to benefit economically from the taxes so wanted to interfere in the Transvaal - racial & economic tensions.

Who did the Uitlanders turn to for help against the unfair voting discrimination they faced?

They turned to Cecil Rhodes - this gave the British even more of an excuse to get involved in the Transvaal.

What angered the British further?

In 1894 - 5 when the Transvaal’s gov proposed building a railway through Portuguese East Africa & so bypassing British controlled ports in Natal & Cape Colony which would undermine the prosperity of these colonies.

What were Salisbury’s aims in relation to foreign policy etc?

1895 - Salisbury returns as Conservative Prime Minister and foreign secretary.

He aimed to protect Britain’s essential interests - security, India, the world sea lanes - by preserving peace. He also wants to keep Britain isolationist.

There’s also tension for him as he doesn’t want the British press to encourage lots of interest in foreign affairs as he doesn’t want to influenced by public opinion - however Salisbury knows public opinion can’t be ignored to sometimes found himself pushed into different direction e.g. by Joseph Chamberlain.

Who was Joseph Chamberlain?

1895 - became colonial secretary and aimed to forge a more coherent empire.

His aggressive defence of imperial interests sometimes clashed with Salisbury’s less aggressive quieter policy.

Why was Kruger convinced that war with the British was likely?

The Jameson Raid - Dec 1895 shows to Kruger that the British won’t give up due to economic reasons so decides to prepare for the inevitable.

He prepared for this by equipping the Transvaal’s army with the best European rifles and artillery - increases political & military tension.

Kruger also signed a military pact with the Orange Free State in 1897.