Environmental Health – Chapter 1: The Environment at Risk

A comprehensive set of question-and-answer flashcards covering key concepts from Chapter 1: The Environment at Risk, including definitions, theories, statistics, examples, and professional roles in environmental health.

How does the World Health Organization (WHO) define Environmental Health (EH)?

EH addresses all chemical, biological, and physical factors external to a person, and related factors impacting behaviors; it involves assessment and control of environmental factors that can affect health to prevent disease and create health-supportive environments.

What slogan captures the idea that improving environmental quality benefits humanity itself?

Environmental protection is self-preservation.

Name the six environmental focus areas identified by Healthy People 2020.

Outdoor Air Quality; Water Quality; Toxics & Waste; Healthy Homes & Healthy Communities; Infrastructure & Surveillance; Global Environmental Health.

List the four overarching goals of Healthy People 2020.

1) Attain long, high-quality lives free of preventable disease and premature death; 2) Achieve health equity, eliminate disparities, and improve the health of all groups; 3) Create social and physical environments that promote good health for all; 4) Promote quality of life, healthy development, and healthy behaviors across all life stages.

Give three examples of what protecting the environment entails.

Breathable air, safe drinking water, and effective waste management (others include arable land, controlled infectious diseases, and preserved natural areas).

What are the "three P’s" identified by Warren Winkelstein as principal worldwide health determinants?

Pollution, Population, and Poverty.

Define carrying capacity.

The population an area can support sustainably without environmental deterioration.

How can fossil-fuel pollution indirectly expand the geographic range of diseases?

By contributing to global warming, it allows disease-carrying insects (e.g., mosquitoes bearing West Nile virus or dengue) to survive in new regions.

Approximately what percentage of global deaths did WHO attribute to environmental sources in 2012?

About 23% (12.6 million deaths).

Which U.S. agency reported 881 million pounds of toxic chemicals released into air and water in 2015?

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Why are children a particularly vulnerable subgroup for environmental hazards?

Their immune systems and detoxifying organs are still developing, and they spend more time outdoors and close to ground-level contaminants.

Why do residents of developing countries often experience more environmental health problems than those in developed countries?

Limited medical care, less financing for pollution controls, and greater exposure to hazards like unsafe water, air pollution, and unsanitary food.

What does the term "environmental risk transition" describe?

The shift from traditional household risks (unsafe water, indoor air pollution) to modern regional/global risks (acid rain precursors, ozone-depleting chemicals, greenhouse gases) as countries develop economically.

State one major environmental health issue identified by NIEHS and WHO as the most pressing for the 21st century.

Climate change.

List two direct health threats from climate change.

Increased frequency of heat waves and sea-level rise leading to flooding (others: more intense storms, degraded air quality).

What is total fertility rate (TFR) and what is the replacement level?

TFR is the average number of births a woman would have over her lifetime; replacement level is about 2.1 births per woman.

Describe the overall fertility trend in the United States since the 1950s.

It dropped from over 3.5 births per woman (baby boom) to approximately replacement level (~2.0–2.1) and in 2016 reached record lows.

Name two factors responsible for long-term declines in mortality worldwide.

Public-health improvements and increased availability of vaccines and drugs (also famine control).

How does migration influence U.S. population growth projections to 2050?

Roughly one-third of projected U.S. growth (about 100 million people) will result from migration.

Define demographic transition.

The shift over time in fertility, mortality, and age/sex makeup of a population, progressing through three stages from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates.

What is epidemiologic transition?

A shift in the dominant causes of morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases to chronic, degenerative diseases.

Give two consequences of rapid world population growth for the environment.

Overtaxed carrying capacity and food insecurity (others: urbanization, loss of biodiversity).

What proportion of the world’s people lived in cities in 1800 compared with 2000?

About 5% in 1800 versus 50% in 2000.

Define a megacity.

An urban area with 10 million or more inhabitants.

List three common hazards to health within the urban environment.

1) Biological pathogens (e.g., tuberculosis bacteria), 2) Chemical pollutants, 3) Physical hazards such as flood risks (others include resource shortages and psychosocial stressors).

What is food insecurity?

A situation in which supplies of wholesome food are uncertain or limited.

Explain how population pressure can lead to loss of biodiversity.

Expansion of urbanization and resource use destroys habitats, promotes invasive species, and drives species extinctions, reducing genetic, species, and habitat diversity.

Provide the formal definition of an ecosystem.

A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Why is the sun considered the ultimate energy source for ecosystems?

Solar radiation supports photosynthesis, which produces nutrients and oxygen that fuel food chains.

Give two examples of "hot topics" in environmental health.

Climate change/global warming and air quality (others: hazardous wastes, environmental justice, water resources, etc.).

What does an industrial hygienist do?

Controls workplace and community hazards, designs exposure control systems, and collaborates with engineers, using knowledge of epidemiology and toxicology.

What is the focus of environmental toxicology?

Studying effects of toxic chemical concentrations on the environment and living organisms.

Describe a primary duty of an environmental health inspector.

Monitoring and enforcing regulations for environmental quality, such as collecting air, water, or waste samples and investigating pollution complaints.

What types of establishments might a food safety specialist inspect?

Restaurants, dairies, food-processing plants, and institutional kitchens (e.g., hospitals).

Which professional enforces laws regarding diseases spread by vectors like mosquitoes?

A vector control specialist.

How does an occupational health nurse contribute to environmental health?

Prevents and treats work-related illnesses, investigates workplace hazards, and provides health education for employees.

What role might an environmental lawyer play in public health?

Assist in policy formulation, provide legal input to government agencies, and litigate cases involving environmental health problems.

What global estimate illustrates exponential population growth: daily and annual increases?

About 250,000 additional people per day and roughly 90 million per year.

At what global population size will the earth likely reach around 2025-2028, based on projections?

Approximately 8 billion people.

Which two countries are projected to be the most populous by 2050?

India (first) and China (second).

Define urbanization.

The movement of populations from rural to urban areas, increasing the proportion of city dwellers.

List two major environmental problems currently facing China.

Severe air pollution in major cities and water shortages in the northwest (plus expanding desertification).

What are the three main household-level risks still dominating the poorest societies?

Unsafe water/sanitation causing diarrhea, indoor air pollution causing respiratory diseases, and malaria linked to poor housing quality.

Why can loss of biodiversity threaten future medical advances?

Extinction of plant species eliminates potential sources of new pharmaceuticals.

Give an historical example where environmental degradation led to societal collapse.

Ancient Mesopotamia declined due to soil erosion, salinization, and silted irrigation channels about 5,000 years ago.

What is meant by "carrying capacity" in relation to human populations?

The maximum number of people an environment can sustainably support without environmental degradation.

Explain how exceeding carrying capacity can trigger local subsistence crises.

Food and water resources become insufficient, leading to malnutrition, increased mortality, and population stabilization at lower numbers.

Which type of disease remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in many developing countries despite the epidemiologic transition in richer nations?

Communicable and infectious diseases.

How many megacities existed worldwide in 2016, and what percentage of people did they contain?

Thirty-one megacities, housing just over 6.8% of the world’s population.

Name two physical hazards associated with settlement locations in urban areas.

Flooding in floodplains and mudslides/landslides on slopes.

What is the significance of "Healthy People 2020" for environmental health?

It sets national U.S. objectives to promote health through a healthy environment, highlighting specific areas like air and water quality, toxics, and infrastructure.

How can technological innovation mitigate the negative effects of population growth?

By improving resource efficiency, developing sustainable energy, enhancing food production, and reducing pollution burdens.

Why are areas with weak health infrastructure particularly vulnerable to climate change according to WHO?

They are least able to prepare for and respond to climate-related health impacts like malnutrition, malaria, or heat stress without external assistance.

What is food insecurity’s potential impact on population dynamics?

It raises mortality and lowers fertility, which can eventually balance population size with available resources.

Describe one way urbanization can elevate the risk of infectious disease spread.

High population density and inadequate sanitation facilitate transmission of respiratory and enteric infections.

How is population density connected to poverty and pollution, according to the three P’s concept?

High population density often exacerbates poverty, which in turn is associated with increased pollution and poorer health outcomes.