Key Events and Movements in American History

The Grange

A farmers' organization founded in 1867 to promote agricultural interests and combat monopolistic practices by railroads and grain storage companies.

Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)

Created in 1887, it was the first federal regulatory agency, aimed at overseeing railroad operations and curbing unfair practices.

Trusts, Pools, Monopolies

Business arrangements in the late 1800s where companies colluded or merged to reduce competition, dominate markets, and control prices.

Vertical Integration

A business strategy where a company controls all stages of production, from raw materials to distribution (used famously by Andrew Carnegie in steel).

Social Darwinism

The application of Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society; used to justify economic inequality and oppose social welfare.

Frederick W. Taylor

An engineer who developed scientific management (Taylorism), promoting efficiency and productivity in industrial work through time studies.

Knights of Labor

A broad labor union founded in 1869 that sought to organize all workers regardless of skill, gender, or race; declined after the Haymarket Affair.

Haymarket Affair (1886)

A labor protest in Chicago turned violent after a bomb was thrown at police; led to public backlash against labor unions.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886, this union focused on skilled workers and emphasized higher wages and better conditions.

Dumbbell Tenements

Poorly designed urban housing that maximized occupancy but had inadequate light, air, and sanitation; common in late 19th-century cities.

Social Gospel

A religious movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that applied Christian ethics to address social issues like poverty and inequality.

Jane Addams

Social reformer and founder of Hull House in Chicago, which provided services for immigrants and the poor; a key figure in the settlement house movement.

Literacy Test (1917)

A law requiring immigrants over 16 to demonstrate reading ability to enter the U.S., aimed at restricting immigration from southern and eastern Europe.

Fundamentalism

A religious movement emphasizing a literal interpretation of the Bible, often in opposition to modernist and scientific views (e.g., evolution).

Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois

Two leading Black intellectuals: Washington advocated vocational training and gradual economic advancement. Du Bois pushed for immediate civil rights and higher education for African Americans.

Literary Realism

A literary movement that portrayed everyday life accurately and honestly, often focusing on middle- and lower-class characters and settings.

Henry George

Author of Progress and Poverty (1879), he proposed a single tax on land to address wealth inequality caused by land speculation.

Ida B. Wells

African American journalist and activist who led an anti-lynching campaign and was an early voice for civil rights and women's suffrage.

Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

Founded in 1874 to combat the influence of alcohol on families and society; also advocated for women's suffrage and social reform.

Sand Creek Massacre (1864)

A brutal attack by U.S. troops on a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho village in Colorado, resulting in the deaths of many Native women and children.

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

Agreement between the U.S. and the Sioux granting them land in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory; later violated when gold was discovered there.

Dawes Act (1887)

Federal law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots; resulted in massive loss of Native land and culture.

Carlisle School

A boarding school in Pennsylvania designed to assimilate Native American children into white culture by erasing their traditions and language.

Frontiers: Mining, Cattle, Farming

Economic activities that drove westward expansion: Mining for gold and silver (e.g., California, Nevada); Cattle ranching boom (e.g., long drives, cowboys); Farming supported by the Homestead Act, often faced environmental challenges.

John Wesley Powell

Geologist and explorer who warned about the unsuitability of large-scale farming in the arid western U.S. without irrigation.

Frederick Jackson Turner

Historian who wrote the influential 'Frontier Thesis,' arguing the American frontier shaped national character and democracy.

Frontier Thesis

Turner's idea that the frontier was a key force in shaping American democracy, values, and individualism; emphasized the closing of the frontier in 1890.

Wave the Bloody Shirt

A political tactic used by Republicans after the Civil War to evoke Union war sacrifices and discredit Democrats as traitors.

Currency Question

A major political issue in the late 1800s over whether to base U.S. currency on gold alone (Gold Standard) or include silver (Free Silver), which farmers and debtors supported.

Civil Service Reform (Patronage)

Movement to end the spoils system and ensure government jobs were given based on merit, leading to the Pendleton Act (1883).

Compromise of 1877

An informal deal that resolved the disputed 1876 presidential election: Republicans got Rutherford B. Hayes as president; in return, federal troops were withdrawn from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.

Redemption

The Southern white Democratic effort to 'redeem' state governments from Republican (often biracial) rule after Reconstruction, leading to Jim Crow segregation.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal,' legitimizing Jim Crow laws.

Jim Crow

A system of state and local laws in the South enforcing racial segregation and disenfranchising African Americans from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

The first major U.S. law to restrict immigration based on nationality, banning most Chinese immigrants and reflecting widespread anti-Asian sentiment.

Depression of 1893

A severe economic downturn caused by railroad overbuilding and shaky financing; led to bank failures, high unemployment, and increased labor unrest.

Great Rapprochement

The diplomatic warming of relations between the U.S. and Britain at the end of the 19th century, leading to closer cooperation in global affairs.

Queen Liliuokalani

The last monarch of Hawaii, overthrown in 1893 by American businessmen and U.S. Marines; opposed U.S. annexation of the islands.

Spanish-American War (1898)

A short conflict triggered by U.S. intervention in Cuba's independence struggle; resulted in U.S. acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Rough Riders

A volunteer cavalry unit led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War, famously charged up San Juan Hill in Cuba.

Imperialism

The policy of extending a nation's power through territorial acquisition or political and economic dominance; the U.S. engaged in this especially after 1898.

Insular Cases

A series of Supreme Court decisions ruling that full constitutional rights did not automatically apply to people in U.S. territories (e.g., Puerto Rico, Philippines).

Platt Amendment (1901)

A U.S. provision added to Cuba's constitution allowing the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs and maintain a naval base at Guantánamo Bay.

Open Door Policy

U.S. diplomatic policy asserting equal trading rights in China and the protection of its territorial integrity, aimed at limiting European and Japanese spheres of influence.

Roosevelt Corollary

An extension of the Monroe Doctrine by Theodore Roosevelt asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin America to preserve stability and protect American interests.

Panama Canal

A canal built by the U.S. (1904-1914) through Panama to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; enhanced U.S. naval and commercial power.

Triple Wall of Privilege

President Woodrow Wilson's term for the tariff, banks, and trusts—three areas he targeted for reform during the Progressive Era.

Federal Reserve (1913)

A central banking system created to regulate the economy by controlling the money supply and interest rates, improving financial stability.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914)

Strengthened antitrust laws by clarifying and expanding on the Sherman Act; protected labor unions from being considered monopolies.

Moral Diplomacy

President Wilson's foreign policy promoting democracy and human rights abroad, contrasting with previous imperialist policies but still involving intervention.

U.S. Occupation of Haiti (1915-1934)

The U.S. military occupied Haiti to stabilize the region and protect American interests; often criticized for its imperialist and racist overtones.

Zimmerman Telegram (1917)

A secret message from Germany to Mexico proposing a military alliance against the U.S.; its interception helped push the U.S. into World War I.

14 Points

President Woodrow Wilson's plan for post-WWI peace, promoting self-determination, free trade, and the League of Nations to prevent future wars.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Supreme Court case that upheld limits on free speech during wartime, establishing the 'clear and present danger' doctrine.

War Industries Board

U.S. government agency during WWI that coordinated production and distribution of war materials, increasing federal control over the economy.

Great Migration

The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities (1910s-1940s) for industrial jobs and to escape Jim Crow laws.

Red Scare (1919-1920)

A period of fear of communism and radicalism following the Russian Revolution, leading to crackdowns on suspected radicals and immigrants.

Sacco and Vanzetti

Two Italian immigrant anarchists convicted of murder in a controversial trial reflecting anti-immigrant and anti-radical sentiment; executed in 1927.

Emergency Quota Act (1921)

Law that restricted immigration by establishing quotas based on nationality, favoring Northern and Western Europeans.

18th Amendment (1919)

Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol in the U.S., beginning the Prohibition Era.

Scopes Trial (1925)

A high-profile court case in Tennessee where teacher John Scopes was tried for teaching evolution, highlighting the clash between science and religious fundamentalism.

Andrew Mellon

Secretary of the Treasury under three Republican presidents (1921-1932), he promoted low taxes, reduced government spending, and pro-business policies.

Charles A. Lindbergh

American aviator who became a national hero after making the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic in 1927.

Flappers

Young women in the 1920s who rejected traditional norms by wearing short dresses, cutting their hair, and embracing independence and modernity.

Harlem Renaissance

A cultural and artistic movement centered in Harlem, New York, celebrating African American culture through literature, music (especially jazz), and visual arts.

Marcus Garvey

Black nationalist and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA); promoted racial pride and a 'Back to Africa' movement.

Veterans Bureau

A government agency established to support WWI veterans, later plagued by corruption scandals under President Harding's administration.

Five-Power Naval Treaty (1922)

An international agreement to limit naval armaments among the U.S., Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to prevent an arms race.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

An international agreement in which signatory nations, including the U.S., renounced war as a tool of national policy (ultimately ineffective).

Teapot Dome Scandal

Major political scandal during the Harding administration in which government officials illegally leased federal oil reserves to private companies for bribes.

Dawes Plan (1924)

A plan to resolve the World War I reparations issue, where the U.S. loaned money to Germany so it could pay reparations to Britain and France, stabilizing the European economy.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

A U.S. policy of non-recognition of territorial changes made by force, particularly aimed at Japan's invasion of Manchuria.

Good Neighbor Policy (1933)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policy aimed at improving relations with Latin America through mutual respect and non-intervention.

Eleanor Roosevelt

First Lady and social reformer who advocated for civil rights, women's rights, and human rights; played a key role in the establishment of the United Nations.

The New Deal

A series of programs and reforms implemented by FDR in the 1930s to combat the Great Depression, including Social Security, unemployment insurance, and public works projects.

Huey P. Long

Louisiana governor and senator who proposed the 'Share Our Wealth' program, advocating wealth redistribution through heavy taxes on the rich.

Dust Bowl

A period of severe dust storms during the 1930s caused by drought and poor farming practices, devastating the Great Plains and displacing many families.

Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO)

A labor organization that sought to unionize all workers in mass production industries (e.g., steel, automobiles) regardless of skill.

Court-Packing Scheme (1937)

President FDR's unsuccessful attempt to expand the Supreme Court by adding justices who would support his New Deal policies.

John Maynard Keynes

British economist who advocated for government intervention in the economy to manage demand and reduce unemployment, influencing New Deal economic policy.

Good Neighbor Policy

A continuation of FDR's approach, emphasizing non-intervention and cooperative relations with Latin American nations, especially during the 1930s.

Totalitarianism

A form of government where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and seeks to regulate every aspect of public and private life (e.g., Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia).

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

A conflict between Republican forces (supported by the Soviet Union and international brigades) and Fascist forces led by Francisco Franco, who eventually won and established a dictatorship.

Munich Conference (1938)

A meeting between Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, where the Allies agreed to allow Hitler to annex parts of Czechoslovakia in exchange for peace, famously called appeasement.

Havana Conference (1928)

A meeting of American republics (including the U.S. and Latin American nations) to discuss economic cooperation and promote the Good Neighbor Policy.

America First

A political movement and organization that advocated for U.S. neutrality in foreign wars and opposed American involvement in World War II.

Destroyer Deal (1940)

A deal between the U.S. and Britain in which the U.S. provided 50 older destroyers to the UK in exchange for land rights in British territories, as part of support for Britain during WWII.

Atlantic Charter (1941)

A joint declaration by President FDR and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, outlining common goals for the post-war world, including self-determination and economic cooperation.

Lend-Lease (1941)

A U.S. program that provided military aid to Allied nations during WWII, allowing them to borrow or lease weapons and supplies, vital for supporting Britain and later the Soviet Union.

Executive Order No. 9066 (1942)

An order by President FDR authorizing the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII, leading to the forced relocation of over 100,000 people into camps.

Fair Employment Practices Commission

Established in 1941 by FDR to prevent discrimination in defense industries and government jobs based on race, religion, or national origin during World War II.

Battle of Midway (June 1942)

A pivotal naval battle in the Pacific Theater of WWII, where U.S. forces decisively defeated the Japanese fleet, turning the tide in favor of the Allies.

Stalingrad (1942-1943)

A brutal battle between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union for control of Stalingrad in Southern Russia. The Soviet victory marked a major turning point in WWII.

Casablanca Conference (1943)

A meeting between FDR and Winston Churchill, where they agreed on the goal of unconditional surrender for the Axis powers and laid out plans for the post-war world.

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

The Allied invasion of Normandy, France, during WWII, marking the beginning of the end for Nazi Germany as the Allies pushed into Western Europe.

Battle of the Bulge (1944-1945)

The last major Nazi offensive on the Western Front during WWII, fought in Belgium. Despite initial German successes, the Allies ultimately won, hastening the end of the war.

Potsdam Conference (1945)

A meeting of the Allied leaders (Truman, Stalin, and Churchill/Attlee) in Potsdam, Germany, to discuss the post-war order, the occupation of Germany, and the implications of the atomic bomb.

Manhattan Project

The secret U.S. program during WWII to develop the atomic bomb, culminating in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

Cold War

The ideological, political, and military rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union after WWII, characterized by nuclear arms races, proxy wars, and competition for global influence.

United Nations (1945)

An international organization founded after WWII aimed at promoting peace, security, and cooperation among nations. Its creation was a response to the failure of the League of Nations.